DAVID BOWERS, Medical Statistician, University of Leeds Medical School, UK. ALLAN HOUSE, Professor, Director of Leeds Institute of Health Science, University of Leeds, UK. DAVID OWENS, Senior Lecturer in Psychiatry, Leeds Institute of Health Science, University of Leeds, UK. BRIDGETTE BEWICK, Senior Lecturer in Health Research, Leeds Institute of Health Sciences, University of Leeds, UK.

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• Preface to the First Edition viiPreface to the Second Edition ixPreface to the Third Edition xiPreface to the Fourth Edition xiiPart I Setting the Scene: Who Did What, and Why 11 Some Preliminaries 32 The Abstract and Introduction 83 The Aims and Objectives 15Part II Design Matters: What Type of Study Is It? 214 Descriptive Studies: Qualitative 235 Descriptive Studies: Quantitative 296 Analytic Studies 367 Intervention Studies 458 Mixed Methods Research 579 Studies of Complex Interventions 6010 Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis 6511 Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies 75Part III The Cast: Finding Out About the Subjects of the Research 7912 The Research Setting 8113 Populations and Samples in Quantitative Research 8514 Research Using Already-Collected Data 9015 The Sample in Qualitative Research 9516 Identifying and Defining Cases 9917 Controls and Comparisons 102Part IV Establishing The Facts: Starting With Basic Observations 10718 Identifying the Characteristics of Quantitative Data 10919 Summarizing the Characteristics of Quantitative Data 11620 Identifying and Summarising the Characteristics of Qualitative Data 12121 Measuring the Characteristics of Participants: Quantitative 12422 Measuring the Characteristics of Participants: Qualitative 13023 Diagnostic Tests: Measuring the Characteristics of Measures 13324 Measurement Scales 13825 Exploring and Explaining: Topic Guides 150Part V Establishing More of the Facts: Some Common Ways of Describing Results 15326 Fractions, Proportions, and Rates 15527 Risks and Odds 15728 Ratios of Risks and Odds 160Part VI Analysing the Data: Estimation and Hypothesis Testing 16729 Confidence Intervals for Means, Proportions, and Medians 16930 Confidence Intervals for Ratios 17631 Testing Hypotheses – The p-value 181Part VII Analysing the Data: Multivariable Methods 19732 Measuring Association 19933 Measuring Agreement 20634 Linear Regression 21135 Logistic Regression 22236 Poisson Regression 22837 Measuring Survival 23738 Analysing Qualitative Data 244Part VIII Reading Between the Lines: How Authors Use Text, Tables, and Pictures to Tell You the Story 24939 Results in Text and Tables 25140 Results in Pictures 26041 The Discussion and Conclusions 270References 274Index 282

DAVID BOWERS, Medical Statistician, University of Leeds Medical School, UK. ALLAN HOUSE, Professor, Director of Leeds Institute of Health Science, University of Leeds, UK. DAVID OWENS, Senior Lecturer in Psychiatry, Leeds Institute of Health Science, University of Leeds, UK. BRIDGETTE BEWICK, Senior Lecturer in Health Research, Leeds Institute of Health Sciences, University of Leeds, UK.

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• Preface to the First Edition viiPreface to the Second Edition ixPreface to the Third Edition xiPreface to the Fourth Edition xiiPart I Setting the Scene: Who Did What, and Why 11 Some Preliminaries 32 The Abstract and Introduction 83 The Aims and Objectives 15Part II Design Matters: What Type of Study Is It? 214 Descriptive Studies: Qualitative 235 Descriptive Studies: Quantitative 296 Analytic Studies 367 Intervention Studies 458 Mixed Methods Research 579 Studies of Complex Interventions 6010 Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis 6511 Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies 75Part III The Cast: Finding Out About the Subjects of the Research 7912 The Research Setting 8113 Populations and Samples in Quantitative Research 8514 Research Using Already-Collected Data 9015 The Sample in Qualitative Research 9516 Identifying and Defining Cases 9917 Controls and Comparisons 102Part IV Establishing The Facts: Starting With Basic Observations 10718 Identifying the Characteristics of Quantitative Data 10919 Summarizing the Characteristics of Quantitative Data 11620 Identifying and Summarising the Characteristics of Qualitative Data 12121 Measuring the Characteristics of Participants: Quantitative 12422 Measuring the Characteristics of Participants: Qualitative 13023 Diagnostic Tests: Measuring the Characteristics of Measures 13324 Measurement Scales 13825 Exploring and Explaining: Topic Guides 150Part V Establishing More of the Facts: Some Common Ways of Describing Results 15326 Fractions, Proportions, and Rates 15527 Risks and Odds 15728 Ratios of Risks and Odds 160Part VI Analysing the Data: Estimation and Hypothesis Testing 16729 Confidence Intervals for Means, Proportions, and Medians 16930 Confidence Intervals for Ratios 17631 Testing Hypotheses – The p-value 181Part VII Analysing the Data: Multivariable Methods 19732 Measuring Association 19933 Measuring Agreement 20634 Linear Regression 21135 Logistic Regression 22236 Poisson Regression 22837 Measuring Survival 23738 Analysing Qualitative Data 244Part VIII Reading Between the Lines: How Authors Use Text, Tables, and Pictures to Tell You the Story 24939 Results in Text and Tables 25140 Results in Pictures 26041 The Discussion and Conclusions 270References 274Index 282

DAVID BOWERS, Medical Statistician, University of Leeds Medical School, UK. ALLAN HOUSE, Professor, Director of Leeds Institute of Health Science, University of Leeds, UK. DAVID OWENS, Senior Lecturer in Psychiatry, Leeds Institute of Health Science, University of Leeds, UK. BRIDGETTE BEWICK, Senior Lecturer in Health Research, Leeds Institute of Health Sciences, University of Leeds, UK.

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• Preface to the First Edition viiPreface to the Second Edition ixPreface to the Third Edition xiPreface to the Fourth Edition xiiPart I Setting the Scene: Who Did What, and Why 11 Some Preliminaries 32 The Abstract and Introduction 83 The Aims and Objectives 15Part II Design Matters: What Type of Study Is It? 214 Descriptive Studies: Qualitative 235 Descriptive Studies: Quantitative 296 Analytic Studies 367 Intervention Studies 458 Mixed Methods Research 579 Studies of Complex Interventions 6010 Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis 6511 Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies 75Part III The Cast: Finding Out About the Subjects of the Research 7912 The Research Setting 8113 Populations and Samples in Quantitative Research 8514 Research Using Already-Collected Data 9015 The Sample in Qualitative Research 9516 Identifying and Defining Cases 9917 Controls and Comparisons 102Part IV Establishing The Facts: Starting With Basic Observations 10718 Identifying the Characteristics of Quantitative Data 10919 Summarizing the Characteristics of Quantitative Data 11620 Identifying and Summarising the Characteristics of Qualitative Data 12121 Measuring the Characteristics of Participants: Quantitative 12422 Measuring the Characteristics of Participants: Qualitative 13023 Diagnostic Tests: Measuring the Characteristics of Measures 13324 Measurement Scales 13825 Exploring and Explaining: Topic Guides 150Part V Establishing More of the Facts: Some Common Ways of Describing Results 15326 Fractions, Proportions, and Rates 15527 Risks and Odds 15728 Ratios of Risks and Odds 160Part VI Analysing the Data: Estimation and Hypothesis Testing 16729 Confidence Intervals for Means, Proportions, and Medians 16930 Confidence Intervals for Ratios 17631 Testing Hypotheses – The p-value 181Part VII Analysing the Data: Multivariable Methods 19732 Measuring Association 19933 Measuring Agreement 20634 Linear Regression 21135 Logistic Regression 22236 Poisson Regression 22837 Measuring Survival 23738 Analysing Qualitative Data 244Part VIII Reading Between the Lines: How Authors Use Text, Tables, and Pictures to Tell You the Story 24939 Results in Text and Tables 25140 Results in Pictures 26041 The Discussion and Conclusions 270References 274Index 282