Nikolas Sellheim, LL.D. (2016), University of Lapland, is postdoctoral researcher at the Polar Cooperation Research Centre, Kobe University, Japan. He has published extensively on the seal hunt, Arctic governance and Arctic social sciences.

• PrefaceAcknowledgements1 Introduction1Where are we on Seals?2Seals and Humans: A Troubled Relationship?3A Brief Introduction to Seals4The Characters of Law4.1 Law and Knowledge4.2 Law as Expression4.3 Are Objectivity and Expression in Law Adversaries? 5 A Short Explanation of the Content of the Book 2 Cultures and Economies 1Introduction 2The Northern Hemisphere 2.1 Northern Atlantic Ocean 2.1.1. Eastern Canadian Seal Hunts 2.1.2. Iceland 2.2 Inuit Seal Hunts in the Davis Strait 2.2.1 Historical Overview 2.3 North Pacific 2.3.1. The Pribilof Islands 2.3.2. The Bering Sea and Bering Strait 2.4 Sea of Okhotsk and Sea of Japan 2.4.1. Historical Overview 2.4.2. Contemporary Issues 2.5 Jan Mayen, Barents Sea and White Sea 2.6 Baltic Sea and North Sea 2.6.1. Historical Overview 2.6.2. Contemporary Issues 2.7 Lake Sealing 3The Southern Hemisphere 3.1 South Georgia 3.1.1. Historical Overview 3.1.2. Contemporary Issues 3.2 South America 3.3 Bass Strait, New Zealand and Macquarie Island 3.3.1. Historical Overview 3.3.2. Contemporary Issues 3.4 South, Southwest and Southeast Africa 4Conclusion 3 Legal Regimes1Introduction 2Defunct Multilateral Regimes 2.1 The North Atlantic 2.1.1 The Jan Mayen Seal Fishery Treaty, 1875 2.1.2 Finnish-Soviet Sealing Regimes in the Northeast Atlantic, 1922–1944 2.1.3 International Convention for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries, 1949—1978 2.1.4 Agreement on Measures for Regulating the Catch and Conserving Stocks of Seals in the Northeastern Part of the Atlantic Ocean, 1957 2.1.5 Agreement between the Government of Canada and the Government of Norway on Sealing and the Conservation of the Seal Stocks in the Northwest Atlantic, 1971 2.2 The Bering Sea Fur Seal Regimes until 1984 2.2.1 The 1911 Fur Seal Convention 2.2.2 The 1957 Interim Convention on Conservation of North Pacific Fur Seals 2.3 Lake Sealing 3Current Multilateral Regimes 3.1 International Legal Regimes 3.1.1 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (unclos), 1982 3.1.2 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (cites), 1979 3.1.3 Convention on Migratory Species (cms, Bonn Convention), 1979 3.1.4 Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Habitats (Bern Convention), 1979 3.1.5 Convention on Biological Diversity (cbd), 1992 3.2 International Organisations and Regional Regimes 3.2.1 Atlantic Ocean 3.2.2 Baltic Sea 3.2.3 Mediterranean Sea 3.2.4 Antarctica 3.3 A Short Discussion on Bi- and Multilateral Agreements 4National Legislation 4.1 Northern Hemisphere 4.1.1 Canada 4.1.2 United States 4.1.3 Russia 4.1.4 Norway 4.1.5 Iceland 4.1.6 Denmark / Greenland 4.1.7 Sweden 4.1.8 Finland 4.1.9 Estonia 4.1.10 Japan 4.2 Southern Hemisphere 4.2.1 Falkland Islands and South Georgia 4.2.2 Namibia and South Africa 4.2.3 Uruguay 4.2.4 Argentina 4.2.5 Peru 4.2.6 Chile 4.2.7 Ecuador 4.2.8 Australia 4.2.9 New Zealand 4.3 A Short Discussion on National Legislation 5Conclusion 4 The European Union and the Seal Hunt 1Introduction 2The Seal Pups Directive 1983 3The EU Seal Regime 3.1 The Drafting History of the EU Seal Regime 3.1.1 The Declaration of the European Parliament 3.1.2 The Seal Hunt and the Council of Europe 3.1.3 The European Food Safety Authority 3.1.4 cowi 3.1.5 The Legislative Proposal 3.1.6 The imco Report 3.1.7 Banning the Trade in Seal Products 3.2 Adjudicating the Seal Regime 3.3 Problems, Politics and Protests 3.3.1 Stakeholders 3.3.2 The Effects of the EU Seal Regime 4 Conclusion 5 Public Morality, International Trade Law and the Seal Hunt 1Introduction 2The Blurry Concept of “Public Morality” 3International Trade Law and the “Moral Concern” 3.1 The Emerging “Moral Exception” in International Trade Law 3.2 The “Moral Concern” and the Trade in Seal Products 4Animal Welfare as a European Moral Standard 5An Inner-European View on Public Morality 6Conclusion 6 Concluding Thoughts Bibliography Literature Cited Legislation, Policy-Documents and Case-Law Cited Index

Nikolas Sellheim, LL.D. (2016), University of Lapland, is postdoctoral researcher at the Polar Cooperation Research Centre, Kobe University, Japan. He has published extensively on the seal hunt, Arctic governance and Arctic social sciences.

• PrefaceAcknowledgements1 Introduction1Where are we on Seals?2Seals and Humans: A Troubled Relationship?3A Brief Introduction to Seals4The Characters of Law4.1 Law and Knowledge4.2 Law as Expression4.3 Are Objectivity and Expression in Law Adversaries? 5 A Short Explanation of the Content of the Book 2 Cultures and Economies 1Introduction 2The Northern Hemisphere 2.1 Northern Atlantic Ocean 2.1.1. Eastern Canadian Seal Hunts 2.1.2. Iceland 2.2 Inuit Seal Hunts in the Davis Strait 2.2.1 Historical Overview 2.3 North Pacific 2.3.1. The Pribilof Islands 2.3.2. The Bering Sea and Bering Strait 2.4 Sea of Okhotsk and Sea of Japan 2.4.1. Historical Overview 2.4.2. Contemporary Issues 2.5 Jan Mayen, Barents Sea and White Sea 2.6 Baltic Sea and North Sea 2.6.1. Historical Overview 2.6.2. Contemporary Issues 2.7 Lake Sealing 3The Southern Hemisphere 3.1 South Georgia 3.1.1. Historical Overview 3.1.2. Contemporary Issues 3.2 South America 3.3 Bass Strait, New Zealand and Macquarie Island 3.3.1. Historical Overview 3.3.2. Contemporary Issues 3.4 South, Southwest and Southeast Africa 4Conclusion 3 Legal Regimes1Introduction 2Defunct Multilateral Regimes 2.1 The North Atlantic 2.1.1 The Jan Mayen Seal Fishery Treaty, 1875 2.1.2 Finnish-Soviet Sealing Regimes in the Northeast Atlantic, 1922–1944 2.1.3 International Convention for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries, 1949—1978 2.1.4 Agreement on Measures for Regulating the Catch and Conserving Stocks of Seals in the Northeastern Part of the Atlantic Ocean, 1957 2.1.5 Agreement between the Government of Canada and the Government of Norway on Sealing and the Conservation of the Seal Stocks in the Northwest Atlantic, 1971 2.2 The Bering Sea Fur Seal Regimes until 1984 2.2.1 The 1911 Fur Seal Convention 2.2.2 The 1957 Interim Convention on Conservation of North Pacific Fur Seals 2.3 Lake Sealing 3Current Multilateral Regimes 3.1 International Legal Regimes 3.1.1 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (unclos), 1982 3.1.2 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (cites), 1979 3.1.3 Convention on Migratory Species (cms, Bonn Convention), 1979 3.1.4 Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Habitats (Bern Convention), 1979 3.1.5 Convention on Biological Diversity (cbd), 1992 3.2 International Organisations and Regional Regimes 3.2.1 Atlantic Ocean 3.2.2 Baltic Sea 3.2.3 Mediterranean Sea 3.2.4 Antarctica 3.3 A Short Discussion on Bi- and Multilateral Agreements 4National Legislation 4.1 Northern Hemisphere 4.1.1 Canada 4.1.2 United States 4.1.3 Russia 4.1.4 Norway 4.1.5 Iceland 4.1.6 Denmark / Greenland 4.1.7 Sweden 4.1.8 Finland 4.1.9 Estonia 4.1.10 Japan 4.2 Southern Hemisphere 4.2.1 Falkland Islands and South Georgia 4.2.2 Namibia and South Africa 4.2.3 Uruguay 4.2.4 Argentina 4.2.5 Peru 4.2.6 Chile 4.2.7 Ecuador 4.2.8 Australia 4.2.9 New Zealand 4.3 A Short Discussion on National Legislation 5Conclusion 4 The European Union and the Seal Hunt 1Introduction 2The Seal Pups Directive 1983 3The EU Seal Regime 3.1 The Drafting History of the EU Seal Regime 3.1.1 The Declaration of the European Parliament 3.1.2 The Seal Hunt and the Council of Europe 3.1.3 The European Food Safety Authority 3.1.4 cowi 3.1.5 The Legislative Proposal 3.1.6 The imco Report 3.1.7 Banning the Trade in Seal Products 3.2 Adjudicating the Seal Regime 3.3 Problems, Politics and Protests 3.3.1 Stakeholders 3.3.2 The Effects of the EU Seal Regime 4 Conclusion 5 Public Morality, International Trade Law and the Seal Hunt 1Introduction 2The Blurry Concept of “Public Morality” 3International Trade Law and the “Moral Concern” 3.1 The Emerging “Moral Exception” in International Trade Law 3.2 The “Moral Concern” and the Trade in Seal Products 4Animal Welfare as a European Moral Standard 5An Inner-European View on Public Morality 6Conclusion 6 Concluding Thoughts Bibliography Literature Cited Legislation, Policy-Documents and Case-Law Cited Index

Nikolas Sellheim, LL.D. (2016), University of Lapland, is postdoctoral researcher at the Polar Cooperation Research Centre, Kobe University, Japan. He has published extensively on the seal hunt, Arctic governance and Arctic social sciences.

• PrefaceAcknowledgements1 Introduction1Where are we on Seals?2Seals and Humans: A Troubled Relationship?3A Brief Introduction to Seals4The Characters of Law4.1 Law and Knowledge4.2 Law as Expression4.3 Are Objectivity and Expression in Law Adversaries? 5 A Short Explanation of the Content of the Book 2 Cultures and Economies 1Introduction 2The Northern Hemisphere 2.1 Northern Atlantic Ocean 2.1.1. Eastern Canadian Seal Hunts 2.1.2. Iceland 2.2 Inuit Seal Hunts in the Davis Strait 2.2.1 Historical Overview 2.3 North Pacific 2.3.1. The Pribilof Islands 2.3.2. The Bering Sea and Bering Strait 2.4 Sea of Okhotsk and Sea of Japan 2.4.1. Historical Overview 2.4.2. Contemporary Issues 2.5 Jan Mayen, Barents Sea and White Sea 2.6 Baltic Sea and North Sea 2.6.1. Historical Overview 2.6.2. Contemporary Issues 2.7 Lake Sealing 3The Southern Hemisphere 3.1 South Georgia 3.1.1. Historical Overview 3.1.2. Contemporary Issues 3.2 South America 3.3 Bass Strait, New Zealand and Macquarie Island 3.3.1. Historical Overview 3.3.2. Contemporary Issues 3.4 South, Southwest and Southeast Africa 4Conclusion 3 Legal Regimes1Introduction 2Defunct Multilateral Regimes 2.1 The North Atlantic 2.1.1 The Jan Mayen Seal Fishery Treaty, 1875 2.1.2 Finnish-Soviet Sealing Regimes in the Northeast Atlantic, 1922–1944 2.1.3 International Convention for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries, 1949—1978 2.1.4 Agreement on Measures for Regulating the Catch and Conserving Stocks of Seals in the Northeastern Part of the Atlantic Ocean, 1957 2.1.5 Agreement between the Government of Canada and the Government of Norway on Sealing and the Conservation of the Seal Stocks in the Northwest Atlantic, 1971 2.2 The Bering Sea Fur Seal Regimes until 1984 2.2.1 The 1911 Fur Seal Convention 2.2.2 The 1957 Interim Convention on Conservation of North Pacific Fur Seals 2.3 Lake Sealing 3Current Multilateral Regimes 3.1 International Legal Regimes 3.1.1 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (unclos), 1982 3.1.2 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (cites), 1979 3.1.3 Convention on Migratory Species (cms, Bonn Convention), 1979 3.1.4 Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Habitats (Bern Convention), 1979 3.1.5 Convention on Biological Diversity (cbd), 1992 3.2 International Organisations and Regional Regimes 3.2.1 Atlantic Ocean 3.2.2 Baltic Sea 3.2.3 Mediterranean Sea 3.2.4 Antarctica 3.3 A Short Discussion on Bi- and Multilateral Agreements 4National Legislation 4.1 Northern Hemisphere 4.1.1 Canada 4.1.2 United States 4.1.3 Russia 4.1.4 Norway 4.1.5 Iceland 4.1.6 Denmark / Greenland 4.1.7 Sweden 4.1.8 Finland 4.1.9 Estonia 4.1.10 Japan 4.2 Southern Hemisphere 4.2.1 Falkland Islands and South Georgia 4.2.2 Namibia and South Africa 4.2.3 Uruguay 4.2.4 Argentina 4.2.5 Peru 4.2.6 Chile 4.2.7 Ecuador 4.2.8 Australia 4.2.9 New Zealand 4.3 A Short Discussion on National Legislation 5Conclusion 4 The European Union and the Seal Hunt 1Introduction 2The Seal Pups Directive 1983 3The EU Seal Regime 3.1 The Drafting History of the EU Seal Regime 3.1.1 The Declaration of the European Parliament 3.1.2 The Seal Hunt and the Council of Europe 3.1.3 The European Food Safety Authority 3.1.4 cowi 3.1.5 The Legislative Proposal 3.1.6 The imco Report 3.1.7 Banning the Trade in Seal Products 3.2 Adjudicating the Seal Regime 3.3 Problems, Politics and Protests 3.3.1 Stakeholders 3.3.2 The Effects of the EU Seal Regime 4 Conclusion 5 Public Morality, International Trade Law and the Seal Hunt 1Introduction 2The Blurry Concept of “Public Morality” 3International Trade Law and the “Moral Concern” 3.1 The Emerging “Moral Exception” in International Trade Law 3.2 The “Moral Concern” and the Trade in Seal Products 4Animal Welfare as a European Moral Standard 5An Inner-European View on Public Morality 6Conclusion 6 Concluding Thoughts Bibliography Literature Cited Legislation, Policy-Documents and Case-Law Cited Index