Causes and Consequences of Terrorism – serie

Civil resistance campaigns have led to some of the most important international developments in recent years, yet little is known of the role that civilian actors can play in challenging the use of violence by militant groups. This book examines the role that social mobilization in the Spanish region of Basque Country played in the decline and end of the Basque armed separatist group Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA). For more than four decades, ETA waged a bloody campaign against the military and the Spanish and Basque police forces while causing a large number of civilian deaths. The Basque case demonstrates that civil resistance can work against terrorism, and this book will show that social mobilization is one of the factors that contributed to the failure of ETA's violent campaign. It reflects on how activism by the peace movement helped to delegitimise the armed struggle in society, explores the role civil society actors played in the construction of ideas that challenged ETA's political project, and highlights how civil resistance to the armed group undermined the prestige of militants and helped to limit the social reach of violent extremist narratives.Resisting Terror raises awareness of the importance of collective action, not only against regimes but also non-state militants, and highlights the significance of civil activism as a tool to mitigate political violence.

Civil resistance campaigns have led to some of the most important international developments in recent years, yet little is known of the role that civilian actors can play in challenging the use of violence by militant groups. This book examines the role that social mobilization in the Spanish region of Basque Country played in the decline and end of the Basque armed separatist group Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA). For more than four decades, ETA waged a bloody campaign against the military and the Spanish and Basque police forces while causing a large number of civilian deaths. The Basque case demonstrates that civil resistance can work against terrorism, and this book will show that social mobilization is one of the factors that contributed to the failure of ETA's violent campaign. It reflects on how activism by the peace movement helped to delegitimise the armed struggle in society, explores the role civil society actors played in the construction of ideas that challenged ETA's political project, and highlights how civil resistance to the armed group undermined the prestige of militants and helped to limit the social reach of violent extremist narratives.Resisting Terror raises awareness of the importance of collective action, not only against regimes but also non-state militants, and highlights the significance of civil activism as a tool to mitigate political violence.

This book offers a comprehensive overview and analysis of the Islamic State's use of propaganda. Combining a range of different theoretical perspectives from across the social sciences, and using rigorous methods, the authors trace the origins of the Islamic State's message, laying bare the strategic logic guiding its evolution, examining each of its multi-media components, and showing how these elements work together to radicalize audiences' worldviews. This volume highlights the challenges that this sort of "full-spectrum propaganda" raises for counter terrorism forces. It is not only a one-stop resource for any analyst of IS and Salafi-jihadism, but also a rich contribution to the study of text and visual propaganda, radicalization and political violence, and international security.

This book offers a comprehensive overview and analysis of the Islamic State's use of propaganda. Combining a range of different theoretical perspectives from across the social sciences, and using rigorous methods, the authors trace the origins of the Islamic State's message, laying bare the strategic logic guiding its evolution, examining each of its multi-media components, and showing how these elements work together to radicalize audiences' worldviews. This volume highlights the challenges that this sort of "full-spectrum propaganda" raises for counter terrorism forces. It is not only a one-stop resource for any analyst of IS and Salafi-jihadism, but also a rich contribution to the study of text and visual propaganda, radicalization and political violence, and international security.

At the start of the Syrian conflict in 2011, thousands of pro-democracy rebel groups spontaneously formed to fight the Assad regime. Years later, the revolution was unrecognizable as rebel opposition forces had merged into three major groups: Jabhat al-Nusra, Ahrar al Sham, and the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS). Why did these three groups rapidly increase in size and military strength while others simply disappeared? What is it about their organizational structure and their Islamist ideology that helped group manage their fighters so successfully?With these questions at the forefront, this book examines the internal organization of armed groups and, in particular, their human resources. Analyzing the growth of these groups through the prism of a labor market theory, this book shows that extreme Islamist groups were able to attract fighters away from more moderate groups because they had better internal organization, took better care of fighters both physically and monetarily, experienced less internal corruption, and effectively used their Islamist ideology to control recruits. With unparalleled access and extensive ethnographic research drawn from her interviews and her year embedded with Iraqi Special Operation forces, Mironova delves deep into the ideological and practical nexus of some of the most radical groups in the Middle East. This book brings together more than 600 survey-interviews with local civilians and fighters on the frontline in Syria and a dataset of human resource policies from 40 armed groups; it is an invaluable resource for anyone who wants insight into the on the ground functioning of rebel organizations.

At the start of the Syrian conflict in 2011, thousands of pro-democracy rebel groups spontaneously formed to fight the Assad regime. Years later, the revolution was unrecognizable as rebel opposition forces had merged into three major groups: Jabhat al-Nusra, Ahrar al Sham, and the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS). Why did these three groups rapidly increase in size and military strength while others simply disappeared? What is it about their organizational structure and their Islamist ideology that helped group manage their fighters so successfully?With these questions at the forefront, this book examines the internal organization of armed groups and, in particular, their human resources. Analyzing the growth of these groups through the prism of a labor market theory, this book shows that extreme Islamist groups were able to attract fighters away from more moderate groups because they had better internal organization, took better care of fighters both physically and monetarily, experienced less internal corruption, and effectively used their Islamist ideology to control recruits. With unparalleled access and extensive ethnographic research drawn from her interviews and her year embedded with Iraqi Special Operation forces, Mironova delves deep into the ideological and practical nexus of some of the most radical groups in the Middle East. This book brings together more than 600 survey-interviews with local civilians and fighters on the frontline in Syria and a dataset of human resource policies from 40 armed groups; it is an invaluable resource for anyone who wants insight into the on the ground functioning of rebel organizations.

Proto-State Media Systems explores how decisions by contemporary violent extremist groups create, develop, and sustain media systems. Focusing on the cases of al-Qaeda and ISIS, this book showcases how standard media systems theory fails to fully explain the media systems of these organizations as a basis for building a revised theoretical lens that comprehends these emergent systems in the 21st century global media context. Utilizing constitutive and online networking theories, Winkler and El Damanhoury explore how militant proto-states create lasting, adaptable, identity-based systems that work to attract and sustain the attention of followers. The groups' appeals to transhistorical and transpatial identity formations in their media products reveal new insights about community formation and how we analyze media systems in the proto-state context. Recognizing that nation-states no longer exercise monopoly control over online and offline media systems, Proto-State Media Systems investigates how certain violent extremist groups bent on establishing sustained territorial and governing control over populations have revolutionized the media environment of the 21st century.

Proto-State Media Systems explores how decisions by contemporary violent extremist groups create, develop, and sustain media systems. Focusing on the cases of al-Qaeda and ISIS, this book showcases how standard media systems theory fails to fully explain the media systems of these organizations as a basis for building a revised theoretical lens that comprehends these emergent systems in the 21st century global media context. Utilizing constitutive and online networking theories, Winkler and El Damanhoury explore how militant proto-states create lasting, adaptable, identity-based systems that work to attract and sustain the attention of followers. The groups' appeals to transhistorical and transpatial identity formations in their media products reveal new insights about community formation and how we analyze media systems in the proto-state context. Recognizing that nation-states no longer exercise monopoly control over online and offline media systems, Proto-State Media Systems investigates how certain violent extremist groups bent on establishing sustained territorial and governing control over populations have revolutionized the media environment of the 21st century.

Insurgent groups consist of individuals willing to organize and commit acts of terror to achieve their goals. By nature, they depend on public support, yet they sometimes target private civilians in addition to military personnel and government officials. This book examines insurgent embeddedness--the extent to which an insurgent group is enmeshed in relationships with the state, other insurgents, and the public--in order to understand why they attack civilians.Using Big Allied and Dangerous (BAAD) as the dataset, this book drills into civilian attacks in specific contexts, including schools, news media, and nonmilitary/nongovernment spaces designed for the general public. This book goes one step further, presenting in-depth analyses of intergroup alliances and rivalries, their changes and determinants over time, and the implications for several types of bloodshed against civilians.Insurgent Terrorism offers a comprehensive, modern approach for academics, students, and policy practitioners who seek to understand interorganizational relationships between insurgent organizations.

Insurgent groups consist of individuals willing to organize and commit acts of terror to achieve their goals. By nature, they depend on public support, yet they sometimes target private civilians in addition to military personnel and government officials. This book examines insurgent embeddedness--the extent to which an insurgent group is enmeshed in relationships with the state, other insurgents, and the public--in order to understand why they attack civilians.Using Big Allied and Dangerous (BAAD) as the dataset, this book drills into civilian attacks in specific contexts, including schools, news media, and nonmilitary/nongovernment spaces designed for the general public. This book goes one step further, presenting in-depth analyses of intergroup alliances and rivalries, their changes and determinants over time, and the implications for several types of bloodshed against civilians.Insurgent Terrorism offers a comprehensive, modern approach for academics, students, and policy practitioners who seek to understand interorganizational relationships between insurgent organizations.

Since the Bali terrorist attacks in 2002, law enforcement agencies have rigorously combatted terrorist networks in Southeast Asia, yet groups motivated by violent extremist interpretations of Islam remain resilient and dangerous. This book shines a light on specific beliefs, behaviors, and policies that impact these challenges, ultimately offering cutting-edge, effective tools for response. The book begins by challenging misguided and controversial notions that depict Islam as an inherently violent religion, arguing that the theological-ideological amalgam of what has been called Salafabism is the more useful lens for recognizing closed-minded extremist currents. The book carefully distinguishes this Salafabist extremist mindset from relatively open-minded Salafabist radicalism, paying due attention to "nonviolent extremists" and the ways they can contribute to rather than reduce violent terrorist activity in the region. Using poignant case studies from Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines and Indonesia, the book clarifies a bewildering range of terminology associated with Islamist violence and explains how imprecise and oversimplified narratives are destructive to progress--and worse, empowering to terrorist organizations. These chapters build up to research-informed policies and rhetorical recommendations for improved outcomes. With its novel insights into the root causes of extremist terrorism in Southeast Asia, the ineffective policies that prohibit progress and promote unrest in this region, and the avenues for positive change, this book offers a comprehensive strategy for fostering theologically sound yet culturally authentic counterterrorist measures that defend the complex, richly textured tapestry of culture in Southeast Asia.

Since the Bali terrorist attacks in 2002, law enforcement agencies have rigorously combatted terrorist networks in Southeast Asia, yet groups motivated by violent extremist interpretations of Islam remain resilient and dangerous. This book shines a light on specific beliefs, behaviors, and policies that impact these challenges, ultimately offering cutting-edge, effective tools for response. The book begins by challenging misguided and controversial notions that depict Islam as an inherently violent religion, arguing that the theological-ideological amalgam of what has been called Salafabism is the more useful lens for recognizing closed-minded extremist currents. The book carefully distinguishes this Salafabist extremist mindset from relatively open-minded Salafabist radicalism, paying due attention to "nonviolent extremists" and the ways they can contribute to rather than reduce violent terrorist activity in the region. Using poignant case studies from Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines and Indonesia, the book clarifies a bewildering range of terminology associated with Islamist violence and explains how imprecise and oversimplified narratives are destructive to progress--and worse, empowering to terrorist organizations. These chapters build up to research-informed policies and rhetorical recommendations for improved outcomes. With its novel insights into the root causes of extremist terrorism in Southeast Asia, the ineffective policies that prohibit progress and promote unrest in this region, and the avenues for positive change, this book offers a comprehensive strategy for fostering theologically sound yet culturally authentic counterterrorist measures that defend the complex, richly textured tapestry of culture in Southeast Asia.

Why does someone join an extremist group? What are the pathways via which individuals join such groups? How does one show commitment to an extremist group? Why does someone participate in acts of terrorism? Drawing on 175 interviews with current and former members of Islamist extremist groups in Indonesia and the Philippines, Becoming Jihadis: Radicalization and Commitment in Southeast Asia answers these questions by exploring the socio-emotional underpinnings of joining an extremist group. This book argues that social ties play a critical role at every juncture in the joining process, from initial engagement to commitment to participation in jihad experiences, paramilitary training, and terrorism. It unpacks the process by which members build a sense of community, connection, solidarity, and brotherhood; how they come to trust and love one another; and how ideology functions as a binding agent, not a cause. Becoming Jihadis draws its conclusions from broad patterns data based on nearly a decade of iterated interviews with current and former members of Islamist extremist groups between 2010 and 2019, as well as partial life histories detailing the journeys of men and women who joined Indonesian and Filipino extremist groups. This book makes a unique contribution to the literature on terrorism and radicalization for students, practitioners, and policymakers.

Why does someone join an extremist group? What are the pathways via which individuals join such groups? How does one show commitment to an extremist group? Why does someone participate in acts of terrorism? Drawing on 175 interviews with current and former members of Islamist extremist groups in Indonesia and the Philippines, Becoming Jihadis: Radicalization and Commitment in Southeast Asia answers these questions by exploring the socio-emotional underpinnings of joining an extremist group. This book argues that social ties play a critical role at every juncture in the joining process, from initial engagement to commitment to participation in jihad experiences, paramilitary training, and terrorism. It unpacks the process by which members build a sense of community, connection, solidarity, and brotherhood; how they come to trust and love one another; and how ideology functions as a binding agent, not a cause. Becoming Jihadis draws its conclusions from broad patterns data based on nearly a decade of iterated interviews with current and former members of Islamist extremist groups between 2010 and 2019, as well as partial life histories detailing the journeys of men and women who joined Indonesian and Filipino extremist groups. This book makes a unique contribution to the literature on terrorism and radicalization for students, practitioners, and policymakers.

Terrorist attacks are a means to an end. Terrorists use violence to spread fear and garner attention in order to achieve political or ideological goals. Beyond the direct damage, the societal and political responses of different audiences largely determine the impact of an attack. How different audiences respond to terrorism remains understudied, which hampers our ability to understand the extent to which terrorism can be considered (un)successful. This book provides an in-depth examination of responses to jihadist terrorism in four countries: Belgium, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Introducing one of the most comprehensive qualitative datasets on the topic, Jeanine de Roy van Zuijdewijn explores the patterns of responses, raises questions about the efficacy of terrorism as a violent communication strategy, and formulates concrete recommendations for policymakers and professionals working to increase resilience and limit the impact of terrorism on societies. She shows how some responses from authorities and citizens were well-choreographed, with solidarity and unity leading the charge, while other attacks revealed deep polarization and division. Ultimately, the book zooms in on the process of meaning-making: how authorities and citizens attempted to place the attacks in a larger interpretive framework by way of using frames, rituals, and symbols directly after and around the first anniversary of the attacks. Combining insights and concepts from various academic disciplines with an empirically driven approach, this book offers an in-depth look at the impact of terrorist attacks to understand how societies are dealing with one of the most pressing security threats of today.

Terrorist attacks are a means to an end. Terrorists use violence to spread fear and garner attention in order to achieve political or ideological goals. Beyond the direct damage, the societal and political responses of different audiences largely determine the impact of an attack. How different audiences respond to terrorism remains understudied, which hampers our ability to understand the extent to which terrorism can be considered (un)successful. This book provides an in-depth examination of responses to jihadist terrorism in four countries: Belgium, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Introducing one of the most comprehensive qualitative datasets on the topic, Jeanine de Roy van Zuijdewijn explores the patterns of responses, raises questions about the efficacy of terrorism as a violent communication strategy, and formulates concrete recommendations for policymakers and professionals working to increase resilience and limit the impact of terrorism on societies. She shows how some responses from authorities and citizens were well-choreographed, with solidarity and unity leading the charge, while other attacks revealed deep polarization and division. Ultimately, the book zooms in on the process of meaning-making: how authorities and citizens attempted to place the attacks in a larger interpretive framework by way of using frames, rituals, and symbols directly after and around the first anniversary of the attacks. Combining insights and concepts from various academic disciplines with an empirically driven approach, this book offers an in-depth look at the impact of terrorist attacks to understand how societies are dealing with one of the most pressing security threats of today.

Since the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001, the terrorism literature has expanded into prevention and prediction of evolving threats. Earlier research often lacked academic rigor and empirical depth, and some newer research centered on recent attacks, ideological waves, and exists in isolation from related research in violent terrorism. Criminology, psychology, sociology, social psychology, and communications theory all offer valuable contributions, though sociological theory is still underused in terrorism studies.The Sociology of Violent Extremism highlights the importance of a sociological approach to understanding violent extremism. It promotes established theoretical frameworks as pathways to deeper insights into the social dynamics of these phenomena. This book features interdisciplinary case studies and theoretical developments, showing the value of sociological perspectives in addressing current issues in violent extremism. The book aims to provide researchers with a theoretical "toolbox" that can be deployed in their own work, encouraging the use of sociological theories to improve the understanding of violent extremism and develop effective countermeasures. It emphasizes viewing violent extremism as a result of complex social processes embedded in societal structures.

Since the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001, the terrorism literature has expanded into prevention and prediction of evolving threats. Earlier research often lacked academic rigor and empirical depth, and some newer research centered on recent attacks, ideological waves, and exists in isolation from related research in violent terrorism. Criminology, psychology, sociology, social psychology, and communications theory all offer valuable contributions, though sociological theory is still underused in terrorism studies.The Sociology of Violent Extremism highlights the importance of a sociological approach to understanding violent extremism. It promotes established theoretical frameworks as pathways to deeper insights into the social dynamics of these phenomena. This book features interdisciplinary case studies and theoretical developments, showing the value of sociological perspectives in addressing current issues in violent extremism. The book aims to provide researchers with a theoretical "toolbox" that can be deployed in their own work, encouraging the use of sociological theories to improve the understanding of violent extremism and develop effective countermeasures. It emphasizes viewing violent extremism as a result of complex social processes embedded in societal structures.

Why do some insurgent groups target American nationals? At first glance, it appears to be a risky strategy, inviting retaliation from the world's foremost military power. But a number of incentives make anti-American violence an attractive option for certain insurgent organizations.Killing Americans explores the risk factors involved in insurgent groups' decisions to plan and conduct attacks on Americans. If, for example, American culture is prevalent in a given country, this tends to lessen the likelihood of attacks. On the other hand, extremist ideology and the deployment of American military forces in the area encourages them. And the consequences for an insurgent group that carries out violence against American citizens can be beneficial: they can raise their profile among sympathizers and gain credibility with would-be recruits. Drawing on quantitative analysis and case studies from around the world, this book shows that insurgents tend to become more lethal and more likely to survive after having made their first attacks on Americans. By considering American involvement abroad, organizational traits of insurgent groups, and potential consequences of attacks, Killing Americans provides a comprehensive account of variation in insurgent anti-American violence.

Why do some insurgent groups target American nationals? At first glance, it appears to be a risky strategy, inviting retaliation from the world's foremost military power. But a number of incentives make anti-American violence an attractive option for certain insurgent organizations.Killing Americans explores the risk factors involved in insurgent groups' decisions to plan and conduct attacks on Americans. If, for example, American culture is prevalent in a given country, this tends to lessen the likelihood of attacks. On the other hand, extremist ideology and the deployment of American military forces in the area encourages them. And the consequences for an insurgent group that carries out violence against American citizens can be beneficial: they can raise their profile among sympathizers and gain credibility with would-be recruits. Drawing on quantitative analysis and case studies from around the world, this book shows that insurgents tend to become more lethal and more likely to survive after having made their first attacks on Americans. By considering American involvement abroad, organizational traits of insurgent groups, and potential consequences of attacks, Killing Americans provides a comprehensive account of variation in insurgent anti-American violence.

In 1991, war broke out in the Chechnya region of North Caucasus. By the early 2010s, people from the area had begun joining international terrorist groups en masse, with some militants rising to leadership positions in Jihadi groups. Despite the importance of this small region and the crucial role its inhabitants have played in major terrorist organizations, there is little known about the people involved and their activities after 2012.Conflict in the North Caucasus sheds light on the history of this war in North Caucasus, a conflict which has evolved into a security concern of international proportions. Over the course of five years, Vera Mironova conducted on-the-ground research among Chechen jihadists, who shared with her their ideologies, contemporary activities, and views of the events of the war. Mironova draws insights from this qualitative evidence to explain how fighters from North Caucasus ended up in the leadership of international Jihad, leaving readers with a more nuanced understanding of the far-reaching conflict and providing policymakers with the knowledge to make informed decisions about the region and activity there.

In 1991, war broke out in the Chechnya region of North Caucasus. By the early 2010s, people from the area had begun joining international terrorist groups en masse, with some militants rising to leadership positions in Jihadi groups. Despite the importance of this small region and the crucial role its inhabitants have played in major terrorist organizations, there is little known about the people involved and their activities after 2012.Conflict in the North Caucasus sheds light on the history of this war in North Caucasus, a conflict which has evolved into a security concern of international proportions. Over the course of five years, Vera Mironova conducted on-the-ground research among Chechen jihadists, who shared with her their ideologies, contemporary activities, and views of the events of the war. Mironova draws insights from this qualitative evidence to explain how fighters from North Caucasus ended up in the leadership of international Jihad, leaving readers with a more nuanced understanding of the far-reaching conflict and providing policymakers with the knowledge to make informed decisions about the region and activity there.

This book uses previously untranslated and unpublished transcripts of key internal debates from the Basque separatist group Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) to unravel the puzzle behind terrorist persistence in the face of certain doom. With its unprecedented view inside a terrorist organization at crucial decision points and discussions of its future, this book highlights the competing considerations that informed ETA's decision-making process, particularly the benefits of the organization's survival for members and the loss of this that peace agreements, which often explicitly demand or hold reasonable expectation that the organization is dissolved, would entail. Bennett's detailed analysis and use of organizational theory reveals that ETA was driven by a desire to survive and expand, and the survival of their organization was ultimately more important than the nationalist movement the organization was formed to pursue.

This book uses previously untranslated and unpublished transcripts of key internal debates from the Basque separatist group Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) to unravel the puzzle behind terrorist persistence in the face of certain doom. With its unprecedented view inside a terrorist organization at crucial decision points and discussions of its future, this book highlights the competing considerations that informed ETA's decision-making process, particularly the benefits of the organization's survival for members and the loss of this that peace agreements, which often explicitly demand or hold reasonable expectation that the organization is dissolved, would entail. Bennett's detailed analysis and use of organizational theory reveals that ETA was driven by a desire to survive and expand, and the survival of their organization was ultimately more important than the nationalist movement the organization was formed to pursue.

This is an open access title available under the terms of a CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International licence. It is free to read on the Oxford Academic platform and offered as a free PDF download from OUP and selected open access locations.This collection is the first on ex-extremists and combatants (Formers) in violence prevention work. While the engagement of Formers in violence prevention programs--especially in the context of countering and preventing violent extremism (P/CVE), and peacebuilding--has expanded across the world, their involvement has been controversial and contested. This volume captures a variety of work Formers are engaged in across a range of contexts, broadly divided into three themes on their effectiveness, ethical considerations, and implementation. Written by a range of authors with diverse perspectives including academics, former extremists, peer mentors, program leaders, and practicing psychologists, chapters include Formers in North American research, the role of former Northern Irish combatants in peacebuilding, collaborating with Formers, the ethical imperatives of engaging Formers in P/CVE efforts, and more. Taken together, the book ultimately offers a snapshot of the ongoing policy debates while contributing to the future direction of work involving Formers in violence prevention.

This is an open access title available under the terms of a CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International licence. It is free to read on the Oxford Academic platform and offered as a free PDF download from OUP and selected open access locations.This collection is the first on ex-extremists and combatants (Formers) in violence prevention work. While the engagement of Formers in violence prevention programs--especially in the context of countering and preventing violent extremism (P/CVE), and peacebuilding--has expanded across the world, their involvement has been controversial and contested. This volume captures a variety of work Formers are engaged in across a range of contexts, broadly divided into three themes on their effectiveness, ethical considerations, and implementation. Written by a range of authors with diverse perspectives including academics, former extremists, peer mentors, program leaders, and practicing psychologists, chapters include Formers in North American research, the role of former Northern Irish combatants in peacebuilding, collaborating with Formers, the ethical imperatives of engaging Formers in P/CVE efforts, and more. Taken together, the book ultimately offers a snapshot of the ongoing policy debates while contributing to the future direction of work involving Formers in violence prevention.

The dominant narrative in intelligence studies portrays the evolution of intelligence from Cold War times to the present as one of increasing complexity. But Western intelligence and security services have countered terrorism before: terrorism became an important threat from the end of the 1960s onwards. Counterterrorism efforts before 9/11, however, differed from those employed post-9/11, not only in the way threats were perceived, but also in the repertoires of action that emerged to counter them.Using newly declassified primary sources, Roots of Counterterrorism puts into focus how the rise of terrorism in the 1970s challenged the existing perceived core functions of intelligence, specifically in the Netherlands. Constant Willem Hijzen analyses how the Dutch domestic security service Binnenlandse Veiligheidsdienst (BVD) scrutinized traces of terrorism from 1968, when Spanish anarchists bombed embassies in The Hague, until the South Moluccan attack of 1978, after which the threat of terrorism and political violence diminished. Unlike counterterrorism in the post-9/11 era, prevention was not the primary goal. Instead, the Dutch security service launched intelligence investigations into the suspected perpetrators of attacks, provided hands-on assistance during terrorist incidents, and advised the police and the Justice department.Roots of Counterterrorism sheds new light on Dutch intelligence history, but also on the dynamics of international intelligence cooperation, operational complexities, and more fundamental questions in intelligence and security studies about the essence and evolution of intelligence and intelligence organizations.