Cultural Heritage Science – serie

This volume highlights recent research efforts in the conservation and investigation of works of art on wood. Through eleven case studies it showcases different experimental methods ranging from X-ray analysis of objects to the study of cross-sections made from micro-samples. New research focusing on the technical study, treatment and assessment of works of art on wood in its many forms is featured in this edited volume. Technical studies include the attribution and investigations of a triptych by Hans Memling and a sculpture from workshop of Michel and Gregor Erhart, decorated Syrian rooms, and investigations of finely carved Gothic wooden objects. Synchrotron-based methods are presented for studying the alteration of 19th c. verdigris in Norway, and multi-analytical methods are employed for the investigations of 16th to 19th c. East Asian lacquer from the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. Novel methods for the cleaning of gilded surfaces using gelsand emulsions are shown, as are innovative strategies for the consolidation for waterlogged wood, providing key data for the assessment of risks and benefits of new methods, and the short and long-term effects on gilding layers and archaeological wood. The book clearly shows how collaboration between engineers, physicists, biologists and chemists and conservators of different types of materials can lead to new research in conservation science. This book is crucial reading for conservators and conservation scientists, as well as for technical art historians, providing key methodological case studies of polychromy from different temporal and geographical contexts.

This book provides a comprehensive introduction to the metallographic study of ancient metals. Metallography is important both conceptually as a microstructural science and in terms of its application to the study of ancient and historic metals. Metallography is a well-established methodology for the characterization of the microstructure of metals, which continues to be significant today in quality control and characterization of metallic properties. Not only does the metallographic examination of ancient metals present its own challenges in terms of sample size and interpretation of evidence, but it must be integrated with archaeological data and cultural research in order to obtain the most meaningful results. Issues of authentication and the establishment of fakes and forgeries of metallic artefacts often involve metallographic evidence of both metal and patina or corrosion interface, as an essential component of such a study. The present volume sets out the basic features of relevant metallic systems, enhanced with a series of examples of typical microstructural types, with illustrative case studies and examples throughout the text derived from studies undertaken by the two authors. This book provides a comprehensive presentation of metallography for archaeologists, archaeometallurgists, conservators, conservation scientists and metallurgists of modern materials.

The material for this book arose from the author’s research into porcelains over many years, as a collector in appreciation of their artistic beauty , as  an analytical chemist in the scientific interrogation of their body paste, enamel pigments and glaze compositions, and as a ceramic historian in the assessment of their manufactory foundations and their correlation with available documentation relating to their recipes and  formulations. A discussion of the role of analysis in the framework of a holistic assessment of artworks and specifically the composition of porcelain, namely  hard paste, soft paste, phosphatic, bone china and magnesian, is followed by its growth from its beginnings in China to its importation into Europe in the 16th Century. A survey of European porcelain manufactories in the 17th and 18th Centuries is followed by a description of the raw materials, minerals and recipes for porcelain manufacture and details of thechemistry of the high temperature firing processes involved therein. The historical backgrounds to several important European factories are considered, highlighting the imperfections in the written record that have been perpetuated through the ages. The analytical chemical information derived from the interrogation of specimens, from fragments, shards or perfect finished items, is reviewed and operational protocols established for the identification of a factory output from the data presented. Several case studies are examined in detail across several porcelain manufactories to indicate the role adopted by modern analytical science, with information provided at the quantitative elemental oxide and qualitative molecular spectroscopic levels, where applicable. The attribution of a specimen to a particular factory is either supported thereby or in some cases a potential reassessment of an earlier attribution is indicated. Overall, the information provided by analytical chemical data is seen to be extremely useful for porcelain identification and for its potential attribution in the context of a holistic forensic evaluation of hitherto unknown porcelain exemplars of questionable factory origins.

The material for this book arose from the author’s research into porcelains over many years, as a collector in appreciation of their artistic beauty , as  an analytical chemist in the scientific interrogation of their body paste, enamel pigments and glaze compositions, and as a ceramic historian in the assessment of their manufactory foundations and their correlation with available documentation relating to their recipes and  formulations. A discussion of the role of analysis in the framework of a holistic assessment of artworks and specifically the composition of porcelain, namely  hard paste, soft paste, phosphatic, bone china and magnesian, is followed by its growth from its beginnings in China to its importation into Europe in the 16th Century. A survey of European porcelain manufactories in the 17th and 18th Centuries is followed by a description of the raw materials, minerals and recipes for porcelain manufacture and details of thechemistry of the high temperature firing processes involved therein. The historical backgrounds to several important European factories are considered, highlighting the imperfections in the written record that have been perpetuated through the ages. The analytical chemical information derived from the interrogation of specimens, from fragments, shards or perfect finished items, is reviewed and operational protocols established for the identification of a factory output from the data presented. Several case studies are examined in detail across several porcelain manufactories to indicate the role adopted by modern analytical science, with information provided at the quantitative elemental oxide and qualitative molecular spectroscopic levels, where applicable. The attribution of a specimen to a particular factory is either supported thereby or in some cases a potential reassessment of an earlier attribution is indicated. Overall, the information provided by analytical chemical data is seen to be extremely useful for porcelain identification and for its potential attribution in the context of a holistic forensic evaluation of hitherto unknown porcelain exemplars of questionable factory origins.

The design of treatments for the conservation of stone in historical buildings and works of art is a challenging task, as a deep understanding of the working properties and performance of the available products and methods is required to tackle complex decay patterns.The chapters in this book illustrate the state of the art on traditional and innovative materials and methods for stone conservation, examining current trends and future perspectives. Each of them is focused on describing the consequent phases that complement the spectrum of the conservation intervention: preliminary investigations, condition assessment, and mapping of the deterioration patterns; surface cleaning, with a specific focus on laser technology; consolidation; protection; repair mortars and grouts; and onsite assessment and monitoring of conservation treatments. The performance of the applied conservation interventions is criticized and discussed with an aim of providing the specialists with specific tools for stone conservation.   This book intends to bridge the gap between laboratory studies and conservation interventions, by linking together the diverse scientific areas involved in the preservation of stone heritage. Different case studies are included, highlighting specific conservation challenges and their solutions in order to understand and overcome them. The aim is to guide conservators, conservation scientists and heritage stakeholders in the selection of compatible and sustainable materials and techniques for Conserving Stone Heritage.

The design of treatments for the conservation of stone in historical buildings and works of art is a challenging task, as a deep understanding of the working properties and performance of the available products and methods is required to tackle complex decay patterns.The chapters in this book illustrate the state of the art on traditional and innovative materials and methods for stone conservation, examining current trends and future perspectives. Each of them is focused on describing the consequent phases that complement the spectrum of the conservation intervention: preliminary investigations, condition assessment, and mapping of the deterioration patterns; surface cleaning, with a specific focus on laser technology; consolidation; protection; repair mortars and grouts; and onsite assessment and monitoring of conservation treatments. The performance of the applied conservation interventions is criticized and discussed with an aim of providing the specialists with specific tools for stone conservation.   This book intends to bridge the gap between laboratory studies and conservation interventions, by linking together the diverse scientific areas involved in the preservation of stone heritage. Different case studies are included, highlighting specific conservation challenges and their solutions in order to understand and overcome them. The aim is to guide conservators, conservation scientists and heritage stakeholders in the selection of compatible and sustainable materials and techniques for Conserving Stone Heritage.

Forgeries present a daunting problem to art historians, museums, galleries and curators who face challenges in determining the authenticity of paintings. Recent progress in science has led to the development of new methods for investigating works of art, and can provide new insights into the materials found in paintings. The rise in the value of paintings together with the knowledge and skills of forgers highlights the need to develop reliable scientific procedures to identify fakes. Given the complexity of materials in paintings and the convergence of various disciplines, a methodological approach for nvestigations of paintings is based on art historical, curatorial, aesthetic, technical and scientific evaluation. In this book sophisticated digital and analytical techniques are reviewed for the identification of materials (pigments, binders, varnishes, adhesives) and the physical characteristics of paintings such as brushstrokes, craquelure and canvas weaves. This book presents an updated overview of both non-invasive and micro-invasive techniques that enable the material characterization of paintings. The materials constituting a painting are reviewed, as are ways that changes in materials over time can provide insights into chronology and physical history. State-of the art digital metods including multi and hyper-spectral imaging and computational approaches to data treatment will be presented. Analytical techniques developed and optimized to characterize binders, varnishes, and pigments are reviewed, focusing on materials which can provide information on ageing or provenance. Case studies of applications of synchrotron-based methods and the analysis of paintings are given, as are chapters devoted to legal aspects related to authenticity. Chapter 1 is available open access under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License via link.springer.com.

Forgeries present a daunting problem to art historians, museums, galleries and curators who face challenges in determining the authenticity of paintings. Recent progress in science has led to the development of new methods for investigating works of art, and can provide new insights into the materials found in paintings. The rise in the value of paintings together with the knowledge and skills of forgers highlights the need to develop reliable scientific procedures to identify fakes. Given the complexity of materials in paintings and the convergence of various disciplines, a methodological approach for nvestigations of paintings is based on art historical, curatorial, aesthetic, technical and scientific evaluation. In this book sophisticated digital and analytical techniques are reviewed for the identification of materials (pigments, binders, varnishes, adhesives) and the physical characteristics of paintings such as brushstrokes, craquelure and canvas weaves. This book presents an updated overview of both non-invasive and micro-invasive techniques that enable the material characterization of paintings. The materials constituting a painting are reviewed, as are ways that changes in materials over time can provide insights into chronology and physical history. State-of the art digital metods including multi and hyper-spectral imaging and computational approaches to data treatment will be presented. Analytical techniques developed and optimized to characterize binders, varnishes, and pigments are reviewed, focusing on materials which can provide information on ageing or provenance. Case studies of applications of synchrotron-based methods and the analysis of paintings are given, as are chapters devoted to legal aspects related to authenticity. Chapter 1 is available open access under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License via link.springer.com.

This book addresses the application of Raman spectroscopic techniques to a range of diverse problems which arise in the study, conservation and restoration of artefacts and sites closely related to our cultural heritage as well as in authentication. These themes are naturally wider than what at first might be considered as artworks and archaeological artefacts and the topics include pigments, paintings, ceramics, glass, sculpture and patination / corrosion, textiles, industrial archaeology, the degradation and preservation of biomaterials, mummies and human skeletal remains. An interesting feature is the inclusion of modern case studies which describe specific problems and approaches to the Raman spectral analysis of items important to our cultural heritage. The text is prefaced with an introduction to the important parameters used in nondestructive Raman measurements and also highlights some future applications based upon novel miniaturised instrumentation for in-field studies andpotential screening work which will identify specimens which would repay further studies in the laboratory. An attempt is made to give a snapshot of the state-of-the-art evolution since the beginning of the technique (1970s) and to point out potential further development. The book is co-edited by three international experts with many years' experience in the application of Raman spectroscopy to artworks, archaeological artefacts and in the investigation of materials and sites for cultural heritage preservation and each editor has undertaken to write individual chapters and different topics personally. The adopted approach is designed to convey the sort of information which has become available from the adoption of analytical Raman spectroscopy to different problems in the field of cultural heritage preservation through the spectral interrogation of artefacts and how the interpretation of the spectral data can assist museum curators, archaeologists and cultural heritage historians in the preservation and conservation of ancient materials and sites : a particular advantage in this respect is the ability of Raman spectroscopy to determine –generally in a strictly noninvasive procedure - at the laboratory or on-site with mobile instruments, the presence of both organic and inorganic components in a particular specimen together nondestructively without any chemical and mechanical pretreatment being undertaken, which is an essential requirement for rare and valuable samples . An important aside from this work is the means of spectral identification of ongoing biodeterioration and biological colonisation in specimens in storage and the effects of environmental deterioration such as humidity and temperature upon their integrity.

This book addresses the application of Raman spectroscopic techniques to a range of diverse problems which arise in the study, conservation and restoration of artefacts and sites closely related to our cultural heritage as well as in authentication. These themes are naturally wider than what at first might be considered as artworks and archaeological artefacts and the topics include pigments, paintings, ceramics, glass, sculpture and patination / corrosion, textiles, industrial archaeology, the degradation and preservation of biomaterials, mummies and human skeletal remains. An interesting feature is the inclusion of modern case studies which describe specific problems and approaches to the Raman spectral analysis of items important to our cultural heritage. The text is prefaced with an introduction to the important parameters used in nondestructive Raman measurements and also highlights some future applications based upon novel miniaturised instrumentation for in-field studies andpotential screening work which will identify specimens which would repay further studies in the laboratory. An attempt is made to give a snapshot of the state-of-the-art evolution since the beginning of the technique (1970s) and to point out potential further development. The book is co-edited by three international experts with many years' experience in the application of Raman spectroscopy to artworks, archaeological artefacts and in the investigation of materials and sites for cultural heritage preservation and each editor has undertaken to write individual chapters and different topics personally. The adopted approach is designed to convey the sort of information which has become available from the adoption of analytical Raman spectroscopy to different problems in the field of cultural heritage preservation through the spectral interrogation of artefacts and how the interpretation of the spectral data can assist museum curators, archaeologists and cultural heritage historians in the preservation and conservation of ancient materials and sites : a particular advantage in this respect is the ability of Raman spectroscopy to determine –generally in a strictly noninvasive procedure - at the laboratory or on-site with mobile instruments, the presence of both organic and inorganic components in a particular specimen together nondestructively without any chemical and mechanical pretreatment being undertaken, which is an essential requirement for rare and valuable samples . An important aside from this work is the means of spectral identification of ongoing biodeterioration and biological colonisation in specimens in storage and the effects of environmental deterioration such as humidity and temperature upon their integrity.

Frans Hals is hailed as one of the three greatest painters of the Dutch seventeenth century along with Rembrandt and Vermeer. Of all seventeenth-century Dutch painters, Frans Hals is also the most controversial in as far as the exact scope of his oeuvre is concerned. Hals’s popularity, the lack of technical reference material as well as the differing views among experts as to the exact scope of his oeuvre make works in his style prone to doubts and misattributions. It has led to fierce debates and legal battles about the attribution of paintings done in his style.In this Open Access book, experts from Ghent University, Leiden University, Amsterdam University, Delft University of Technology, the Frans Hals Museum (Haarlem), the Rijksmuseum (Amsterdam), the Gemäldegalerie (Berlin) and the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York) give surprising new insights into some of Hals’s most well-known paintings as well as into some of the most fiercely contested pictures in his style. Their insights result from in-depth study of a wealth of reference material: seventeenth-century sources, advanced technical analyses and newly developed digital visualisation tools.“Tummers and Erdmann have produced a work of ground-breaking new scholarship. They combine in-depth art historical study with new technical analyses and data visualisation tools in order to solve current issues in the attribution of paintings by Frans Hals. This book significantly sharpens our understanding of Hals’s virtuoso work process, his characteristic workshop practice, and his notion of authenticity. The rich data gathered for the case studies will be useful for a next generation of art historians and connoisseurs: digital tools enhance the human eye in matters of attribution.”Prof. Thijs Weststeijn, Professor of Art History before 1800, Utrecht University"Tummers bravely interrogates the history of connoisseurship and the seemingly never-ending search for attributions of paintings associated with Frans Hals. A series of well-chosen case studies of paintings rigorously subjected to the most current means of examination and scientific imaging by leading experts in the field extends our understanding of Hals, his manner of painting, and the possibilities for aligning traditional connoisseurship with technical studies and techniques. In the process, this book thoughtfully probes the merits, challenges, and potential of 21st-century digital tools alongside the role of visual analysis."Christopher D.M. Atkins, Van Otterloo-Weatherbie Director of the Center for Netherlandish Art at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Frans Hals is hailed as one of the three greatest painters of the Dutch seventeenth century along with Rembrandt and Vermeer. Of all seventeenth-century Dutch painters, Frans Hals is also the most controversial in as far as the exact scope of his oeuvre is concerned. Hals’s popularity, the lack of technical reference material as well as the differing views among experts as to the exact scope of his oeuvre make works in his style prone to doubts and misattributions. It has led to fierce debates and legal battles about the attribution of paintings done in his style.In this Open Access book, experts from Ghent University, Leiden University, Amsterdam University, Delft University of Technology, the Frans Hals Museum (Haarlem), the Rijksmuseum (Amsterdam), the Gemäldegalerie (Berlin) and the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York) give surprising new insights into some of Hals’s most well-known paintings as well as into some of the most fiercely contested pictures in his style. Their insights result from in-depth study of a wealth of reference material: seventeenth-century sources, advanced technical analyses and newly developed digital visualisation tools.“Tummers and Erdmann have produced a work of ground-breaking new scholarship. They combine in-depth art historical study with new technical analyses and data visualisation tools in order to solve current issues in the attribution of paintings by Frans Hals. This book significantly sharpens our understanding of Hals’s virtuoso work process, his characteristic workshop practice, and his notion of authenticity. The rich data gathered for the case studies will be useful for a next generation of art historians and connoisseurs: digital tools enhance the human eye in matters of attribution.”Prof. Thijs Weststeijn, Professor of Art History before 1800, Utrecht University"Tummers bravely interrogates the history of connoisseurship and the seemingly never-ending search for attributions of paintings associated with Frans Hals. A series of well-chosen case studies of paintings rigorously subjected to the most current means of examination and scientific imaging by leading experts in the field extends our understanding of Hals, his manner of painting, and the possibilities for aligning traditional connoisseurship with technical studies and techniques. In the process, this book thoughtfully probes the merits, challenges, and potential of 21st-century digital tools alongside the role of visual analysis."Christopher D.M. Atkins, Van Otterloo-Weatherbie Director of the Center for Netherlandish Art at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

The history and nature of artificial stone for use in architecture is a subject still shrouded in myth and misconception. This book aims to lay bare those misconceptions and present a scientific and architectural account of these materials, and especially Coade Stone, the most successful of all, which found great favour during the Georgian period. Many examples of Coade Stone cast sculpture still exist and several  key examples are presented in context and as case studies . Eleanor Coade’s artificial stone was so good that many observers could not distinguish it from the natural stone it replaced: the growth in replication of the neo-classical statuary and building adornment required in the late Georgian and Regency period was well satisfied by the use of Coade stone. A holistic evaluation of Coade stone artefacts is undertaken whereby the use of analytical data, historical documentation, invoices, company records, impressed marks and expert connoisseurship will establishthe attribution of Coade stone artefacts, some of which are currently in the unknown category. Several new scientific analyses are presented that demonstrate the true nature of high temperature fired ceramic Coade Stone and allow comparison with other forms of artificial stone, such as the cold cured cementitious variations, which eventually replaced it in the Victorian period.

The history and nature of artificial stone for use in architecture is a subject still shrouded in myth and misconception. This book aims to lay bare those misconceptions and present a scientific and architectural account of these materials, and especially Coade Stone, the most successful of all, which found great favour during the Georgian period. Many examples of Coade Stone cast sculpture still exist and several  key examples are presented in context and as case studies . Eleanor Coade’s artificial stone was so good that many observers could not distinguish it from the natural stone it replaced: the growth in replication of the neo-classical statuary and building adornment required in the late Georgian and Regency period was well satisfied by the use of Coade stone. A holistic evaluation of Coade stone artefacts is undertaken whereby the use of analytical data, historical documentation, invoices, company records, impressed marks and expert connoisseurship will establishthe attribution of Coade stone artefacts, some of which are currently in the unknown category. Several new scientific analyses are presented that demonstrate the true nature of high temperature fired ceramic Coade Stone and allow comparison with other forms of artificial stone, such as the cold cured cementitious variations, which eventually replaced it in the Victorian period.

The use of natural mineral and synthetic blue pigments in antiquity for wall paintings and illuminated manuscript historiation evolved into the most suitable blue pigments for the decoration of glazed and enamelled wares (ceramics, glass and metal)  which required a stability at the high temperatures of the kilns used for glazing and firing. Historic literature is often vague regarding the blue pigments used for this purpose. The generic term “cobalt blue” covers a wide range of pigments that were actually used for the decoration  of  faience, majolica, stonewares, earthenwares and porcelains.This book addresses the application of  elemental and molecular spectroscopic analytical techniques to a range of diverse problems which arise for decorated ceramics, glass and enamels and related artefacts: a history of techniques, provenance and authentication.  The text contains an introduction to the important analytical techniques that are used in destructive and nondestructive analytical measurements and highlights potential future applications based upon novel miniaturised instrumentation for in-situ studies. The book is co-authored by two international experts with many years’ experience in the application of  analysis to artworks and  archaeological artefacts and in the investigation of materials and sites for cultural heritage preservation. Among 19 chapters one is  devoted to an evaluation of the analytical techniques that are used and the pitfalls which can arise in the interpretation of the data. The approach conveys the detailed information which has become available from the adoption of analytical  techniques to diverse problems  through the scientific interrogation of ceramic and related artefacts. Examples are given of how the pigment analysis and sourcing can provide unique information about ancient trade routes and pigment sourcing historically.  A classic instance is provided by the transfer of European enamelling technologies carried out at the beginning of the 17th century in Japan (Arita) and at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries in China by the Jesuits established at the Court of, respectively, the Kyushu island of Daymios and the Chinese Qing Empero Kangxi. It has hence been demonstrated that some of the most beautiful porcelains emanating from Japan and China in this period incorporate blue decoration  with pigments supplied from Europe. The interpretation of the analytical data can assist museum curators, archaeologists, art dealers/experts and cultural heritage historians in the preservation and conservation of ancient materials which have applied blue pigment decoration.

The use of natural mineral and synthetic blue pigments in antiquity for wall paintings and illuminated manuscript historiation evolved into the most suitable blue pigments for the decoration of glazed and enamelled wares (ceramics, glass and metal)  which required a stability at the high temperatures of the kilns used for glazing and firing. Historic literature is often vague regarding the blue pigments used for this purpose. The generic term “cobalt blue” covers a wide range of pigments that were actually used for the decoration  of  faience, majolica, stonewares, earthenwares and porcelains.This book addresses the application of  elemental and molecular spectroscopic analytical techniques to a range of diverse problems which arise for decorated ceramics, glass and enamels and related artefacts: a history of techniques, provenance and authentication.  The text contains an introduction to the important analytical techniques that are used in destructive and nondestructive analytical measurements and highlights potential future applications based upon novel miniaturised instrumentation for in-situ studies. The book is co-authored by two international experts with many years’ experience in the application of  analysis to artworks and  archaeological artefacts and in the investigation of materials and sites for cultural heritage preservation. Among 19 chapters one is  devoted to an evaluation of the analytical techniques that are used and the pitfalls which can arise in the interpretation of the data. The approach conveys the detailed information which has become available from the adoption of analytical  techniques to diverse problems  through the scientific interrogation of ceramic and related artefacts. Examples are given of how the pigment analysis and sourcing can provide unique information about ancient trade routes and pigment sourcing historically.  A classic instance is provided by the transfer of European enamelling technologies carried out at the beginning of the 17th century in Japan (Arita) and at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries in China by the Jesuits established at the Court of, respectively, the Kyushu island of Daymios and the Chinese Qing Empero Kangxi. It has hence been demonstrated that some of the most beautiful porcelains emanating from Japan and China in this period incorporate blue decoration  with pigments supplied from Europe. The interpretation of the analytical data can assist museum curators, archaeologists, art dealers/experts and cultural heritage historians in the preservation and conservation of ancient materials which have applied blue pigment decoration.

The invention of Mauveine by Perkin in 1856 led to a revolution in the world of textiledyeing. In the second half of the 19th century, natural dyes were quickly replaced by newly developed synthetic dyes which resulted in a bright palette of colours. The synthetic dyes were not only cheaper to produce, but also easier to apply on textiles due to new dyeing mechanisms. As a result, production costs decreased tremendously and brilliantly dyed textiles became available to the larger public. The introduction of synthetic dyes had a strong impact in fashion; in addition, these colourants were also used as stains on furniture, as inks and in paints.In this publication, the development of these vivid colourants is presented. It brings together information about the history of synthetic dyes, including the first attempts, the so-called semi-synthetic dyes, and presenting the most relevant dyes and dye classes, such as nitro dyes, tri-arylmethanes, azo dyes, xanthenes, sulfur dyes, synthetic alizarin and synthetic indigo. It contains a wealth of information regarding the numerous synonyms, trade names, manufacturers and patents. International trade and competition, which was fierce, are discussed. The chemistry behind the synthetic dyeing is explained, including new dyeing technologies developed. The application of dyes and their fastness properties are also presented. An overview of analytical techniques used for characterisation is given. Many case studies are included, expressing the importance of the dyes and the creativity of mankind when applying these colourants. As such, this publication can be seen as a colourful journey through history, relevant for conservators, curators, historians, chemists and all who are interested in the history and development of synthetic dyes.

The invention of Mauveine by Perkin in 1856 led to a revolution in the world of textiledyeing. In the second half of the 19th century, natural dyes were quickly replaced by newly developed synthetic dyes which resulted in a bright palette of colours. The synthetic dyes were not only cheaper to produce, but also easier to apply on textiles due to new dyeing mechanisms. As a result, production costs decreased tremendously and brilliantly dyed textiles became available to the larger public. The introduction of synthetic dyes had a strong impact in fashion; in addition, these colourants were also used as stains on furniture, as inks and in paints.In this publication, the development of these vivid colourants is presented. It brings together information about the history of synthetic dyes, including the first attempts, the so-called semi-synthetic dyes, and presenting the most relevant dyes and dye classes, such as nitro dyes, tri-arylmethanes, azo dyes, xanthenes, sulfur dyes, synthetic alizarin and synthetic indigo. It contains a wealth of information regarding the numerous synonyms, trade names, manufacturers and patents. International trade and competition, which was fierce, are discussed. The chemistry behind the synthetic dyeing is explained, including new dyeing technologies developed. The application of dyes and their fastness properties are also presented. An overview of analytical techniques used for characterisation is given. Many case studies are included, expressing the importance of the dyes and the creativity of mankind when applying these colourants. As such, this publication can be seen as a colourful journey through history, relevant for conservators, curators, historians, chemists and all who are interested in the history and development of synthetic dyes.

This book reviews the information provided by an artificial intelligence–based methodology for the characterization of artworks and the attribution of a piece to a particular artist. Until now, such approaches have been applied mainly to oil paintings, where supporting scientific evidence from underlying layers is available through IR and X‑ray imaging, as well as chemical analysis of pigments, binders, and resins.The new approach explored in this book adapts these methods to ceramic decoration and the special pigments used for that purpose, which must withstand kiln‑firing temperatures of up to 1000 °C. As with oil paintings, the artistry of ceramic decorators has traditionally been assessed by art experts and connoisseurs, who have not previously had the advantage of considering associated scientific evidence and have therefore relied primarily on stylistic judgment.This volume addresses that gap by focusing specifically on the work of the esteemed ceramic artist William Billingsley, who painted on porcelain from several manufactories, beginning with Derby and later including his own at Nantgarw, during the last two decades of the 18th century and the first two decades of the 19th century. Many examples of Billingsley’s artwork now reside in major museum collections worldwide.The principle remains the same: the artificial intelligence procedure requires training a computer to recognize Billingsley’s verified works and then examine other pieces attributed to him to assess the correctness of their attribution, while also comparing his work to that of contemporaries such as Moses Webster, William Pegg, and Leonard Lead.

This book elaborates on different aspects of the decision making process concerning the management of climate risk in museums and historic houses. The goal of this publication is to assist collection managers and caretakers by providing information that will allow responsible decisions about the museum indoor climate to be made. The focus is not only on the outcome, but also on the equally important process that leads to that outcome. The different steps contribute significantly to the understanding of the needs of movable and immovable heritage. The decision making process to determine the requirements for the museum indoor climate includes nine steps: Step 1. The process to make a balanced decision starts by clarifying the decision context and evaluating what is important to the decision maker by developing clear objectives. In Step 2 the value of all heritage assets that are affected by the decision are evaluated and the significance of the building and the movable collection ismade explicit. Step 3. The climate risks to the moveable collection are assessed. Step 4: Those parts of the building that are considered valuable and susceptible to certain climate conditions are identified. Step 5. The human comfort needs for visitors and staff are expressed. Step 6: To understand the indoor climate, the building physics are explored. Step 7. The climate specifications derived from step 3 to 5 are weighed and for each climate zone the optimal climate conditions are specified. Step 8: Within the value framework established in Step 1, the options to optimize the indoor climate are considered and selected. Step 9: All options to reduce the climate collection risks are evaluated by the objectives established in Step 1.

This book elaborates on different aspects of the decision making process concerning the management of climate risk in museums and historic houses. The goal of this publication is to assist collection managers and caretakers by providing information that will allow responsible decisions about the museum indoor climate to be made. The focus is not only on the outcome, but also on the equally important process that leads to that outcome. The different steps contribute significantly to the understanding of the needs of movable and immovable heritage. The decision making process to determine the requirements for the museum indoor climate includes nine steps: Step 1. The process to make a balanced decision starts by clarifying the decision context and evaluating what is important to the decision maker by developing clear objectives. In Step 2 the value of all heritage assets that are affected by the decision are evaluated and the significance of the building and the movable collection ismade explicit. Step 3. The climate risks to the moveable collection are assessed. Step 4: Those parts of the building that are considered valuable and susceptible to certain climate conditions are identified. Step 5. The human comfort needs for visitors and staff are expressed. Step 6: To understand the indoor climate, the building physics are explored. Step 7. The climate specifications derived from step 3 to 5 are weighed and for each climate zone the optimal climate conditions are specified. Step 8: Within the value framework established in Step 1, the options to optimize the indoor climate are considered and selected. Step 9: All options to reduce the climate collection risks are evaluated by the objectives established in Step 1.

This go-to reference work surveys the current state of knowledge in the field of metal soap-related degradation phenomena in art works. It contains detailed descriptions and images of the different phenomena and addresses the practical aspects of soap formation, preventive conservation, and treatment.The occurrence of metal soaps is one of the defining issues in the conservation of painted surfaces, and one that presently leaves innumerable open questions. It is estimated that around 70% of paintings in museum collections are affected by some form of metal soap-related degradation. In recent years, significant advances have been made in the detection and characterization of these compounds through interdisciplinary approaches including conventional spectroscopy and microscopy as well as emerging synchrotron-based techniques. This book for the first time captures a panoramic overview of the state of knowledge of metal soaps related to both scientific analysis and implications for conservation and treatment. It also critically examines open questions. The book is accessible to audiences with varied backgrounds (e.g. conservators, students of conservation science) while simultaneously presenting the technical details indispensable for academics and researchers active in this field.

This book describes the current, concrete status of terahertz (THz) technology applied to scientific diagnoses of cultural heritage objects for conservation planning as well as for historical interest. It is unlike other THz-related scientific books in optics series, which only describe technologies and the physics behind them. A new method utilizing THz technology is introduced, which will help conservators and historians to analyse art objects at their museums. By using pulse echoes, THz imaging can noninvasively show internal structures such as layers in paintings and internal defects or additional pieces in objects. The biggest advantage of THz technology in heritage science is that THz waves can reveal the condition of preparation layers and supports of paintings that cannot be observed by other nondestructive testing methods, such as infrared (IR) or X-ray radiography. The condition of supports and preparation layers determine the lifetime of the paintings, so that their condition is the key factor for conservation planning.The comparison with existing classic methods for scientific analyses is extremely important in the context of introducing new technologies in any research field, since most conservators and heritage scientists have their own protocols for classic methods. This book compares THz results not only with visible cross sections obtained using destructive methods, but also mid-IR, near IR, UV, X-ray, and nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR), which are considered to be nondestructive methods. The book suggests future work that can be done by THz specialists, especially concerning the development of THz cameras, and by engineers and scientists in other fields, such as signal processing and chemistry, as well as by conservators.

This book describes the current, concrete status of terahertz (THz) technology applied to scientific diagnoses of cultural heritage objects for conservation planning as well as for historical interest. It is unlike other THz-related scientific books in optics series, which only describe technologies and the physics behind them. A new method utilizing THz technology is introduced, which will help conservators and historians to analyse art objects at their museums. By using pulse echoes, THz imaging can noninvasively show internal structures such as layers in paintings and internal defects or additional pieces in objects. The biggest advantage of THz technology in heritage science is that THz waves can reveal the condition of preparation layers and supports of paintings that cannot be observed by other nondestructive testing methods, such as infrared (IR) or X-ray radiography. The condition of supports and preparation layers determine the lifetime of the paintings, so that their condition is the key factor for conservation planning.The comparison with existing classic methods for scientific analyses is extremely important in the context of introducing new technologies in any research field, since most conservators and heritage scientists have their own protocols for classic methods. This book compares THz results not only with visible cross sections obtained using destructive methods, but also mid-IR, near IR, UV, X-ray, and nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR), which are considered to be nondestructive methods. The book suggests future work that can be done by THz specialists, especially concerning the development of THz cameras, and by engineers and scientists in other fields, such as signal processing and chemistry, as well as by conservators.

This book presents recent research on ancient Silk Road wall paintings, providing an up-to-date analysis of their coloring materials and techniques, and of developments in efforts to preserve them.The destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas in 2001 encouraged international collaboration between conservation research institutes to study and protect the Silk Road’s painted heritage. The collaborations led to exciting new discoveries of the rich materials used in wall painting, including diverse pigments and colorants, and various types of organic binding media. In addition, comparative research across the region revealed shared painting practices that indicate the sophisticated exchange of technologies and ideas. In parallel with these advances in technical understanding, greater awareness and sensitivity has been fostered in endeavors to preserve this fragile heritage. The book offers insights obtained from conservation projects and ongoing research, that encompass thegeographical regions and periods related to the Silk Road, including from Japan, China, Korea, India and Afghanistan, and countries of the Eastern Mediterranean region. It also discusses the current issues and future challenges in the field. Featuring concise chapters, the book is a valuable resource for students and professionals in the field of cultural heritage preservation, as well as those who are not familiar with the fascinating topic of Silk Road wall painting research.