Elements on Women in the History of Philosophy – serie

Olympe de Gouges, though a well-known historical figure, has not been investigated as a philosopher until quite recently. Yet, many of her writings have philosophical import, whether they are written in the genre of the philosophical treatise, drama or political pamphlets. In the three main sections, the author gives an overview of some of her arguments, showing their originality and their relevance to debates contemporary to her and to us. In the introduction, the author addresses the question of genre and argue that Gouges should be read as a philosopher, as well as a playwright and political writer. In the conclusion, the author draws out the relevance of her work for contemporary philosophers.

There has recently been a resurgence of interest in the early nineteenth century Scottish philosopher Mary Shepherd. This Element is intended to provide an overview of Shepherd's system, including her views on the following wide range of topics: causation, induction, knowledge of the external world, matter, life, animal cognition, the relationship between mind and body, the immortality of the soul, the existence of God, miracles, and the nature of divine creation. The author also provides an overview of relevant secondary literature and argues for their own interpretation of Shepherd's metaphysics.

Mary Wollstonecraft is recognized as an important early feminist. This Element argues that she is also an ingenious moral philosopher, who showed that true virtue and the liberty of women are necessarily interdependent. The Element consists of eight sections. After an introduction, Section 2 discusses Wollstonecraft's concept of reason by examining its metaphysical foundation and its role as moral capacity. According to Wollstonecraft, reason interacts closely with the passions. Then, Sections 3 and 4 discuss the roles of the passions and the imagination. Reason, passion and imagination all come together in Wollstonecraft's discussions of love and friendship, which are the topic of Section 5. Wollstonecraft values education and knowledge, but discussions of her epistemology have been rare. Section 6 analyses some aspects of her views on knowledge. Finally, Section 7 discusses Wollstonecraft's notion of virtue, including its relations to liberty and duty. Section 8 makes some general conclusions.

This Element aims to critically examine the philosophical thought of Im Yunjidang 任允摯堂 (1721-93), a female Korean Neo-Confucian philosopher from the Chosŏn 朝鮮 dynasty (1392-1910), and to present her as a feminist thinker. Unlike most Korean women of her time, Yunjidang had the exceptional opportunity to be introduced to a major philosophical debate among Korean Neo-Confucians, which was focused on two core questions-whether sages and commoners share the same heart-mind, and whether the natures of human beings and animals are identical. In the course of engaging in this debate, she was able to reformulate Neo-Confucian metaphysics and ethics of moral self-cultivation, culminating in her bold ideas of the moral equality between men and women and the possibility of female sagehood. By proposing a 'stage-approach' to feminism that is also sensitive to the cultural context, this Element shows that Yunjidang's philosophical thought could be best captured in terms of Confucian feminism.

Tracing her intellectual development from her university years, when she was trained in a Cartesian and neo-Kantian philosophical tradition, to her final decade, during which she was recognised as having inspired the emerging strands of late twentieth-century feminism, Beauvoir is shown to have been among the most influential philosophical voices of the mid twentieth century. Countering the recent trend to read her in isolation from Sartre, she is shown to have both adopted, adapted, and influenced his philosophy, most importantly through encouraging him to engage with Hegel and to consider our relations with others. The Second Sex is read in the light of her existentialist humanism and ultimately faulted for having succumbed too uncritically to the masculine myth that it is men who are solely responsible for society's intellectual and cultural history.

The Pythagorean women are a group of female philosophers who were followers of Pythagoras and are credited with authoring a series of letters and treatises. In both stages of the history of Pythagoreanism - namely, the fifth-century Pythagorean societies and the Hellenistic Pythagorean writings - the Pythagorean woman is viewed as an intellectual, a thinker, a teacher, and a philosopher. The purpose of this Element is to answer the question: what kind of philosopher is the Pythagorean woman? The traditional picture of the Pythagorean female sage is that of an expert of the household. The author argues that the available evidence is more complex and conveys the idea of the Pythagorean woman as both an expert on the female sphere and a well-rounded thinker philosophising about the principles of the cosmos, human society, the immortality of the soul, numbers, and harmonics.

Susan Stebbing (1885-1943), the UK's first female professor of philosophy, was a key figure in the development of analytic philosophy. Stebbing wrote the world's first accessible book on the new polyadic logic and its philosophy. She made major contributions to the philosophy of science, metaphysics, philosophical logic, critical thinking and applied philosophy. Nonetheless she has remained largely neglected by historians of analytic philosophy. This Element provides a thorough yet accessible overview of Stebbing's positive, original contributions, including her solution to the paradox of analysis, her account of the relation of sense data to physical objects, and her anti- idealist interpretation of the new Einsteinian physics. Stebbing's innovative work in these and other areas helped move analytic philosophy from its early phase to its middle period.

Lucrezia Marinella's (1571-1653) most important contributions to philosophy were two polemical treatises: The Nobility and excellence of Women, and the Defects and Vices of Men, and the Exhortations to Women and to Others if They Please. Marinella argues for the superiority of women over men in every respect: psychologically, physiologically, morally, and intellectually. She is particularly effective in using the resources of ancient philosophy to support her various arguments, in which she draws conclusions about the souls and the bodies of women, the nature and significance of women's beauty, the virtue of women and the liberty to which women as well as men are entitled. This Element showcases that her claim of superiority is intended ultimately to justify the possibility of political rule by women.

In this Element the author argues that genre deeply affects how early Christian female philosophers are characterized across different works. The included case studies are three women who feature in both narrative and dialogic texts: Thecla, Macrina the Younger and Monica. Based on these examples, the author demonstrates that the narrative sources tend to eschew secular education, while the dialogic sources are open to displays of secular knowledge. Philosophy was not only seen as a way of life, but sometimes also as a mode of educated argumentation. The author further argues that these female philosophers were held up in their femininity as models for imitation by both women and men.

This Element offers the first detailed study of Catharine Trotter Cockburn's philosophy and covers her contributions to philosophical debates in epistemology, metaphysics, moral philosophy, and philosophy of religion. It not only examines Cockburn's view that sensation and reflection are the sources of knowledge, but also how she draws attention to the limitations of human understanding and how she approaches metaphysical debates through this lens. In the area of moral philosophy, this Element argues that it is helpful to take seriously Cockburn's distinction between questions concerning the metaphysical foundation of morality and questions concerning the practice of morality. Moreover, this Element examines Cockburn's religious views and considers her understanding of the relation between morality and religion and her religious views concerning the resurrection and the afterlife.

This Element presents the philosophical contributions of Nísia Floresta, a feminist philosopher of education from the 19th century in early post-colonial Brazil, who defended abolition and indigenous rights. Focusing on five central works (Direitos, Lágrima, Opúsculo, Páginas, and Woman), it shows them connected by a critique of colonialism grounded on feminist principles. Influenced by the practical Cartesianism of Poulain de la Barre through the pamphlets of Sophia, Floresta applies to the social structures the feminist principle that reason has no gender, arguing that a nation's civilizational level depends on whether natural equality is expressed in terms of social rights. Describing the suffering experienced by women, indigenous people, and the black enslaved population, she defends education as a strategy against colonialism. As such, education should aim towards physical and intellectual emancipation, restoring the lost dignity of individuals. Floresta's works thus foreground slavery and colonization as events that shaped philosophical modernity.

Harriet Taylor Mill is an overlooked figure in the history of political philosophy, ethics, economics and politics, over-shadowed by the fame of her writing partner, and eventual husband, John Stuart Mill. Given that they met at a very early age (when Taylor Mill was twenty-two), and wrote together for over a quarter of a century, it can be hard to distinguish what is 'hers' and what is 'his'. Indeed, maybe we should consider much of Mill's canon as being 'theirs'. Taylor Mill inputted into some extremely famous works, including On Liberty, and her thought, impact and legacy are well worth charting. This Element explores her contribution to political theory; ethics; political economy; and political reform. It draws on close textual analysis of 'her' works and those of Mill (including manuscripts unpublished in her lifetime, and correspondence), as well as interrogating his description of their co-authoring relationship.

This Element examines the roles and activities of women and their contributions to the Platonic tradition from Plato's time-fourth century BCE- through to the sixth century CE. Drawing on recent research on female agency, gender studies and the connections between ancient philosophy and religious traditions, this Element re-assesses the multi-faceted roles of women within Platonism. Methodologically, any assessment of ancient women philosophers must consider the contexts of the production, transmission and (partial) survival of the range of evidence attesting to their activities, and the historical minimisation or elision of women's intellectual contributions within the western philosophical tradition, science and the academy. As such, this Element argues that the existing evidence allows us to glimpse a much wider pattern of female philosophical and intellectual activity within the Platonic tradition and that we should be careful not to underestimate or minimise the significance of ancient women within the history of Platonism.

This Element introduces the philosophy of Frances Power Cobbe (1822-1904), a very well-known moral theorist, advocate of animal welfare and women's rights, and critic of Darwinism and atheism in the Victorian era. After locating Cobbe's achievements within nineteenth-century British culture, this Element examines her duty-based moral theory of the 1850s and then her 1860s accounts of duties to animals, women's rights, and the mind and unconscious thought. From the 1870s, in critical response to Darwin's evolutionary ethics, Cobbe put greater moral weight on the emotions, especially sympathy. She now criticised atheism for undermining morality, emphasised women's duties to develop virtues of character, and recommended treating animals with sympathy and compassion. The Element links Cobbe's philosophical arguments to her campaigns for women's rights and against vivisection, brings in critical responses from her contemporaries, explains how she became omitted from the history of philosophy, and shows the lasting importance of her work.

Amalia Holst's trailblazing book On the Vocation of Woman to Higher Intellectual Education (1802) dropped a bomb on the German speaking states-a bomb that failed to detonate. In one of the first works of philosophy in German published under a woman's name, Holst declares that it is time a member of the female sex spoke out about the plight of women in Germany. Despite her bold attempt to ignite a new movement of women's education, her book was harshly reviewed by male critics and thrust into obscurity. This Element presents the first comprehensive study of Holst's writings, unearthing their striking contribution to philosophy's growing awareness of the social conditions of human freedom. The force of her argument, and the difficulties she encountered, reveal the ambiguous character of the German Enlightenment and prompt us to reconsider what can be salvaged from it.

This Element focuses on the villancicos (or choral poems) of the Novohispanic philosopher Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz. Though the villancicos have traditionally been considered minor works that Sor Juana wrote by commission for various religious feasts, this Element argues that Sor Juana's villancicos are in fact important philosophical writings. Specifically, this Element shows that through her villancicos Sor Juana presents a philosophical pedagogy, develops a form of virtue pluralism based on a series of moral paradigms, articulates a form of mannerist feminism, and provides a partial defense of Black and Indigenous people.

Long celebrated for her heroic feat of endurance in escaping slavery and subsequent activism, Harriet Jacobs was also an astute political thinker. Her book, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl is a remarkable philosophical text. It is one of the most insightful reflections, both on the nature of life as a slave, and on the relationships amongst slaves and between enslaved and free people. The author places Jacobs in the republican tradition of political thought. Bringing Jacobs into dialogue with Frederick Douglass, the author argues that Jacobs's emphasis on sexual abuse and the importance of slave relationships offers us a basis for a feminist republicanism. Jacobs also emphasises the structural nature of slavery, reinforced by propaganda and social prejudices. These implicate not just slaveholders but also the free population in slavery's wrongs.

In 1880s Britain, Victoria Welby (1837-1912) began creating a rich, wide-ranging metaphysical system. At its heart lies Motion, 'the great fact, the supreme category'. Drawing extensively on archive materials, this Element offers the first study of Welby's metaphysics. It portrays her universe as a complex of motions: motions comprise material bodies, living beings, and conscious minds. This dynamic universe, 'Motion', underlies many other elements of her thought, including her views on idealism, panpsychism, change, space, and anti-realism about time. This study shows that Welby's metaphysics are deeply embedded in the scientific-philosophical debates of her period, and variously draw on vortex theories of matter in physics; Victorian panpsychisms, fuelled by debates over the continuity of mind in Darwinian evolution; and new conceptions of time as the 'fourth dimension' of space. Victoria Welby significantly advances our understanding of Welby's philosophy, opening paths for future scholarship.

Iris Murdoch is well-known for her moral philosophy, especially for the light it sheds on the inner life. This Element focuses on the political significance and contours of Murdoch's ethics. Its chief aim is to illuminate the affinities between Murdoch's concept of the individual and the Enlightenment ideal of a society in which people live together as free equals. There are five sections in this Element. Section 1 provides context for the discussion. Section 2 compares what Murdoch calls the liberal and naturalistic outlooks and argues that she develops a modified version of the naturalistic outlook to better support an Enlightenment sensibility. Sections 3 and 4 examine the three main features of Murdoch's 'naturalized' individual. Section 3 considers the individual's uniqueness and transcendence. Section 4 considers the individual's knowability through love. Section 5 offers some concluding remarks.

E. E. Constance Jones (1848-1922) published widely in philosophical logic and in ethics and moral psychology and was an active member of the British philosophical community from 1890 until her death. Her contributions to philosophical logic were wide-ranging and sophisticated, anticipating celebrated insights of later twentiethcentury philosophy of language and logic. In ethics, her writings on hedonism and practical reason, though influenced by her mentor, Henry Sidgwick, were innovative and merit further examination.

Lucrezia Marinella's (1571-1653) most important contributions to philosophy were two polemical treatises: The Nobility and excellence of Women, and the Defects and Vices of Men, and the Exhortations to Women and to Others if They Please. Marinella argues for the superiority of women over men in every respect: psychologically, physiologically, morally, and intellectually. She is particularly effective in using the resources of ancient philosophy to support her various arguments, in which she draws conclusions about the souls and the bodies of women, the nature and significance of women's beauty, the virtue of women and the liberty to which women as well as men are entitled. This Element showcases that her claim of superiority is intended ultimately to justify the possibility of political rule by women.

This Element focuses on the villancicos (or choral poems) of the Novohispanic philosopher Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz. Though the villancicos have traditionally been considered minor works that Sor Juana wrote by commission for various religious feasts, this Element argues that Sor Juana's villancicos are in fact important philosophical writings. Specifically, this Element shows that through her villancicos Sor Juana presents a philosophical pedagogy, develops a form of virtue pluralism based on a series of moral paradigms, articulates a form of mannerist feminism, and provides a partial defense of Black and Indigenous people.

Amalia Holst's trailblazing book On the Vocation of Woman to Higher Intellectual Education (1802) dropped a bomb on the German speaking states-a bomb that failed to detonate. In one of the first works of philosophy in German published under a woman's name, Holst declares that it is time a member of the female sex spoke out about the plight of women in Germany. Despite her bold attempt to ignite a new movement of women's education, her book was harshly reviewed by male critics and thrust into obscurity. This Element presents the first comprehensive study of Holst's writings, unearthing their striking contribution to philosophy's growing awareness of the social conditions of human freedom. The force of her argument, and the difficulties she encountered, reveal the ambiguous character of the German Enlightenment and prompt us to reconsider what can be salvaged from it.

This Element examines the roles and activities of women and their contributions to the Platonic tradition from Plato's time-fourth century BCE- through to the sixth century CE. Drawing on recent research on female agency, gender studies and the connections between ancient philosophy and religious traditions, this Element re-assesses the multi-faceted roles of women within Platonism. Methodologically, any assessment of ancient women philosophers must consider the contexts of the production, transmission and (partial) survival of the range of evidence attesting to their activities, and the historical minimisation or elision of women's intellectual contributions within the western philosophical tradition, science and the academy. As such, this Element argues that the existing evidence allows us to glimpse a much wider pattern of female philosophical and intellectual activity within the Platonic tradition and that we should be careful not to underestimate or minimise the significance of ancient women within the history of Platonism.

Iris Murdoch is well-known for her moral philosophy, especially for the light it sheds on the inner life. This Element focuses on the political significance and contours of Murdoch's ethics. Its chief aim is to illuminate the affinities between Murdoch's concept of the individual and the Enlightenment ideal of a society in which people live together as free equals. There are five sections in this Element. Section 1 provides context for the discussion. Section 2 compares what Murdoch calls the liberal and naturalistic outlooks and argues that she develops a modified version of the naturalistic outlook to better support an Enlightenment sensibility. Sections 3 and 4 examine the three main features of Murdoch's 'naturalized' individual. Section 3 considers the individual's uniqueness and transcendence. Section 4 considers the individual's knowability through love. Section 5 offers some concluding remarks.

Long celebrated for her heroic feat of endurance in escaping slavery and subsequent activism, Harriet Jacobs was also an astute political thinker. Her book, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl is a remarkable philosophical text. It is one of the most insightful reflections, both on the nature of life as a slave, and on the relationships amongst slaves and between enslaved and free people. The author places Jacobs in the republican tradition of political thought. Bringing Jacobs into dialogue with Frederick Douglass, the author argues that Jacobs's emphasis on sexual abuse and the importance of slave relationships offers us a basis for a feminist republicanism. Jacobs also emphasises the structural nature of slavery, reinforced by propaganda and social prejudices. These implicate not just slaveholders but also the free population in slavery's wrongs.