NATO Science Partnership Subseries: 1 - Böcker

Superpower arms reduction, nuclear reprocessing and the abandonment or deferral of plans for fast breeder reactions have combined to produce a worldwide surplus of highly enriched uranium and plutonium. Both materials pose security and safety problems, and plutonium poses particular dilemmas for disposal or other ways of consuming the surplus. But new studies and technical developments have opened up new possibilities for managing the plutonium surplus. To highlight the issues raised and to assess these options, the Royal Institute of International Affairs hosted a NATO sponsored Advanced Research Workshop to examine technical aspects of the worldwide surplus of separated plutonium. These proceedings examine the state of knowledge about the amount, form, location and characteristics of separated plutonium, and the many and varied proposals for disposing of or consuming the surplus. With a total of 24 papers and commentaries from leading experts in a dozen countries, it provides an overview of the state of research on ways of dealing with one of today's most pressing security problems, and the potential implications for nuclear energy strategies.

MOX fuel, a mixture of weapon-grade plutonium and natural or depleted uranium, may be used to deplete a portion of the world's surplus of weapon-grade plutonium. A number of reactors currently operate in Europe with one-third MOX cores, and others are scheduled to begin using MOX fuels in both Europe and Japan in the near future. While Russia has laboratory-scale MOX fabrication facilities, the technology remains under study. No fuels containing plutonium are used in the US The 25 presentations in this book give an overview of MOX technology.

The contributors to this book argue that the collapse of the former Soviet Union has left a conceptual vacuum in the definition of a new world order. The following taxonomy of the dimensions of strategic stability was accepted by the contributors as the first step towards a new model: stability in geopolitics and balance of power; arms race stability; deterrence stability, crisis stability, first strike stability; and stability in the presence of clandestine proliferation. After four days, this gathering of academic, scientific and military experts from the USA, Russia, the UK, France, China, India and Israel reached a general agreement that is captured in the Consensus Report; each participant presented an individual contribution that explores the dimensions of strategic stability. This work provides joint concepts for all leaders of the nuclear powers to shape their decisions for the coming decades. It also hopes to provide an opportunity for them to base their decisions on agreed scientific facts, not just political judgments.

In the immediate term, plutonium recovered from dismantled nuclear warheads will have to be stored securely, under international safeguards where possible. One of the principal alternatives for the disposition of this plutonium is to blend it with high-level waste as it is vitrified for final disposal in a geologic repository. The high radioactivity of the resulting product provides self-shielding and ensures that the Pu cannot be separated without the development of highly sophisticated technology. This third NATO ARW on the disposal of weapons-grade plutonium discusses the non-reactor disposition option, presenting a thorough evaluation of the pros and cons. In broad terms, the workshop presents an exchange of information on waste vitrification, including technical feasibility as well as the necessary stringent safeguards. It discusses the different approaches to the optimum techniques and credible alternatives for immobilizing transuranics and fission products for disposal. It introduces new disposal techniques, in particular matrix immobilization followed by deep borehole disposal.It assesses the implications of safeguarding requirements and identifies common areas in which defined research tasks can be initiated in co-operative partnership.

An up-to-date review of the physics and applications of a major class of laser, the most important example of which is the copper vapour laser. These papers cover: the early history of pulsed metal vapour lasters; the plasma kinetics and excitation mechanisms of self terminating and recombination metal vapour lasers; beam quality issues for applications; frequency harmonic generation for mid-UV applications; high-precision processing of metals, ceramics, glasses and plastics using metal vapour lasers; applications in medicine, including oncology and dermatology; and applications in science such as spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. It practical source of information on the physics, engineering and applications of metal vapour lasers.

This text assesses a broad range of technologies, proposed throughout the world as alternatives to incineration, for the destruction of chemical warfare agents. Treatment of metal parts and explosive or energetic material is considered as a secondary issue. The technologies are grouped into three categories, based on process bulk operating temperature: low (0-200`C), medium (200-600`C) and high (600-3500`C). The reactions considered include hydrolysis, oxidation, electrochemistry, hydrogenation and pyrolysis. The technologies include a broad spectrum of processes, some of which have been studied only in the laboratory, whereas others are in commercial use for the destruction of hazardous and toxic wastes. This book aims to provide engineers and decision-makers with an understanding of the state of development of alternative technologies.

This volume summarises the materials presented at the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Sea-Dumped Chemical Munitions, held in Kaliningrad (Moscow Region), Russia, in January 1995. The conference was sponsored by the NATO Division of Scientific and Environmental Affairs in the framework of its outreach programme to develop co-operation between NATO member countries and the Cooperation Partner countries in the area of disarmament technologies. The problem of the ecological threat posed by chemical weapons (CW) dumped in the seas after the Second World War deserves considerable international attention: the amount of these weapons, many of them having been captured from the German Army, is assessed at more than three times as much as the total chemical arsenals reported by the United States and Russia. They were disposed of in the shallow depths of North European seas - areas of active fishing - in close proximity to densely populated coastlines, with no consideration of the long-term consequences. The highly toxic material have time and again showed up, for instance when retrieved occasionally in the fishing nets, attracting local media coverage only. Nevertheless, this issue has not yet been given adequate and comprehensive scientific analysis, the sea-disposed munitions are not covered by either the Chemical Weapons Convention or other arms control treaties. In fact, the problem has been neglected for a long time on the international level. Only recently were official data made available by the countries which admitted conducting dumping operations.

The end of the Cold War has led to an acceleration in the decommissioning of the world's nuclear submarine fleet. Russian vessels, in particular, are being taken rapidly out of service and this surge of vessels has in many cases far exceeded the capacity of the available decommissioning facilities in Russia. Severe problems exist in areas such as the storage of submarines awaiting defuelling, storage and transport of spent nuclear fuel, the handling of radioactive wastes, and the dismantling and disposal of major submarine components. The magnitude and complexity of such problems, many of them revealed here to the public for the first time, are laid bare in some detail, with a discussion of the associated environmental impact, especially in the Arctic and the western Pacific. Solutions to these problems are proposed.

The world situation has witnessed dramatic changes in the recent past, and defence-related science and technology are coming under increasing pressure to demonstrate their ability to contribute added value to national and international economies. But defence conversion is complicated by the absence of tested principles and there is no formal training to facilitate the conversion process. As a result, such factors as long-term implications for defence together with a broad range of issues related to economic, political and social questions are not being adequately addressed. Governments and industries are searching for optimum strategies to guide the defence conversion process without benefit of either historical precedents as models or a complete understanding of the process itself. This book identifies and studies the elements of successful defence conversion strategies through a systematic analysis of the factors influencing them and the common features of specific national efforts. The book reflects a combination of theory and practical experience. national strategies are explored that stimulate the conversion of defence technologies to industrial capacity, global economic growth and stability, the preservation and enhancement of defence technology options, and the ability to capitalize on unique economic, political and social opportunities afforded by defense technology conversion.The nations of the former Soviet Union present a particular problem. In Russia, for instance, from 1990 to 1993 there was a 47% decline in industrial production and a 38% decrease in GNP. This clearly needs immediate action, but there are difficulties with the conversion processes, technology transfer and implementation of dual-use strategies. While many of these issues are generic to the process, there are national and cultural difficulties. At a time of unprecedented global political and economic instability, the collective knowledge and experience of NATO and its Cooperation Partners will be essential to the successful conversion of defense production capabilities to economic tools that can contribute to universal economic equilibrium and prosperity.

The safe destruction and dismantling of chemical, nuclear and conventional weapons is of fundamental importance to the security of a number of countries represented in this volume. Expertise in the field is not confined to one country or organization: all can benefit from each other. There is an ever present danger of proliferation of weapons of mass destruction: approximately two dozen countries have ongoing programmes to develop or acquire such weapons, and many are also gaining the capability to build air-surface delivery systems. But much can be done to prevent proliferation by reducing leakage of materials and know-how and by solving the problems of the destruction of surplus weapons systems, which has now come to be a key issue.

While the long-term storage of high-level wastes is just starting in some countries, low and medium-level wastes have been stored for several decades. Further, interim storage of spent fuel has been extended at many locations far beyond the intended time span. One of the priorities of this book is a discussion of the deleterious effects observed under these storage conditions, or under simulated storage condition tests. One chronic problem is the possibility that microbially-influenced corrosion could be occurring in the wet storage of spent fuel, thereby initiating or accelerating corrosion. Another problem is the presence of biofilms which may be breaking down the structure of waste forms, thereby jeopardizing their integrity. The book is organized around four topics: policy matters, fundamental technical issues, microbial processes in the interim storage of spent nuclear fuel, and repository storage of spent fuel. Some of the data presented indicates that previous engineering conditions are changing or deteriorating at a different rate (faster or slower) than predicted.Fundamental issues include microbial biofilm development on matrices, microbial influenced corrosion, and bioaccumulation of radionuclides.

This text assesses a broad range of mobile technologies that have been proposed by agencies throughout the world as alternatives to incineration for the remediation and destruction of chemical warfare agents and associated material Treatments of both metal parts and explosive or energetic materials are considered. The alternative technologies are grouped into three categories based on process bulk operating temperature: low (0-200`C), medium (200-600`C), and high (600-3500`C). Reactions considered include neutralization, biodegradation, hydrolysis, electrochemical oxidation, supercritical water oxidation, wet air oxidation, plasma reactions, gasification, hydrogenation, pyrolysis, and others. A broad spectrum of processes are described, many of which are as yet only in the laboratory stage while others are in commercial use.

One of the major problems associated with the disposal of chemical weapons is that the agents have degraded over time, some quite seriously. Detecting and identifying the products of this decomposition are necessary prerequisites to the safe, complete and environmentally benign destruction of stockpiled weapons. This text presents and discusses both basic and novel techniques in a variety of areas of analytical chemistry which are relevant to achieving the ultimate destruction of chemical weapons. Presentations address sample collection and preparation, mass spectrometry, chromatographic techniques, NMR, and air monitoring techniques. The work seeks to show that analytical methods do exist to effectively support the destruction of chemical munitions. While further research is needed, the book provides a baseline for further advances in the field.

This is a survey of different approaches adopted by Eastern and Western countries for the disposal of surplus ammunition. Incineration and other techniques for the disposal of high explosives, gun and rocket propellants are introduced and discussed in relation to environmental and safety requirements. Proposals for and examples of the re-use of military explosives in commercial applications are given. Topics discussed range from the conversion of energetic systems into chemical raw materials to the new development of energetic systems with special features for commercial use (such as producing artificial diamonds by detonation, self-propagating high-temperature synthesis, fire extinguishing, and other methods).

Hitherto the disposal of munitions was mostly concerned with obsolete stocks, but the political developments in the states of the former Soviet Union in the 1990s have necessitated the disposal of vast quantities of current and obsolete stocks. Obviously, open burning/open detonation cannot be used on such a large scale, not least for environmental considerations. There are two main technical problems associated with the disposal of munitions on the scale required. First, the materials are not simple wastes or rubbish. Their handling, storage, packaging and transportation are subject to very rigid regulation, and justifiably so, for obvious reasons. Second, they are very valuable goods, for which a high price has been paid by the holding states' economic systems. Mere destruction would mean the irretrievable loss of the value invested. But therein lies the problem. Goods like steel or brass scrap can easily be reclaimed, but hypergols and other rocket fuels (for instance) represent a true chemical challenge, while, under certain conditions, explosives may be diverted to civilian use.This, in summary, is the problem that the present text deals with: the two-pronged attack involving demilitarization and recycling technologies.

Approximately 20 long-range seismic profiles have been recorded since 1971 in the former USSR, using PNE as sources. The long observational range (3000km) provided full penetration of the Earth's upper mantle to depths of 600km, giving insight into the 3-D structure of the upper mantle. These data are confronted with the requirements of the CTBT for 3-D regional seismic models of the lithosphere-asthenosphere system. The two primary purposes of this book are to present these seismic observations on super long-range profiles in digitized format, using peaceful nuclear explosions (PNE) in the former USSR, and to present the joint thoughts of experts from the deep seismic sounding (DSS) and the comprehensive test-ban treaty (CTBT) communities. Implications for petrological and other Earth-science disciplines are presented. The book is intended for members of the CTBT community, and Earth scientists interested in the 3-D structure of the lithosphere-asthenosphere system.

Significant amounts of liquid and solid radioactive waste have been generated in Russia during the production of nuclear weapons, and there is an urgent need to find suitable ways to manage these wastes in a way that protects both the current population and future generations. This book contains contributions from pure and applied scientists and other representatives from Europe, North America, and Russia, who are, or have been, actively involved in the field of radioactive waste management and disposal. First-hand experience of specific problems associated with defence-related wastes in the USA and the Russian Federation is presented, and current plans are described for the disposal of solid wastes arising from civilian nuclear power production programmes in other countries, including Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Germany and the UK. The book provides an insight into ongoing research at local and national level within Russia, devoted to the safe disposal of defence-related radioactive waste. It also demonstrates how existing expertise and technology from civilian nuclear waste management programmes can be applied to solving the problems created by nuclear defence programmes.The contributions address methods of immobilization, site selection methodology, site characterization techniques and data interpretation, the key elements of safety/performance assessments of planned deep (geological) repositories for radioactive waste, and radionuclide transport modelling. Concerns associated with certain specific nuclear waste disposal concepts and repository sites are also presented.

More than ten million "poison gas" shells, mortar bombs and so forth, lie hidden in Europe, many of them relics from World War I. Some were fired and failed to detonate, others were abandoned in old ammunition dumps. Most retain their load of chemical warfare (CW) agents. They are turned up daily in the course of farming and construction. Many European nations have permanent departments concerned with their collection and destruction. Old munitions, when discovered, are usually heavily corroded and difficult to identify. Is it a CW munition? Or an explosive? If CW, what agent does it contain? Once identified, one has to select a destruction method. Some of the methods that have been proposed are less than perfect, and are often complicated by the presence of extraneous chemicals, either mixed with the CW agents during manufacture or formed over decades in the ground. Of particular interest should be the insiders' reports on the German CW programmes of both World Wars, and the current status of Russian chemical armaments.

With the end of the Cold War, the US and the Russian Federation have been actively dismantling tens of thousands of nuclear weapons. As a result, large quantities of fissile materials have become surplus to the strategic defence needs of both countries. In order to meet non-proliferation goals and to ensure the irreversibility of nuclear arms reductions, these excess fissile materials must be placed and maintained in secure storage prior to being dismantled and, ultimately, processed into a form that meets the "spent fuel" standard. A fundamental prerequisite for the successful disposal of these materials is the safe operation of the many components of the nuclear fuel cycle. The present book reports on a technical exchange between the US Department of Energy and the Russian Ministry for Atomic Energy, with additional input from expert organizations in other countries, on the issue of nuclear materials safety management. It addresses the principal issues in the area, summarizes past activities, and outlines potential future initiatives. The focus is on the non-reactor components of the nuclear fuel cycle, with consideration of excess weapons fissile materials.Coverage includes storage of plutonium; plutonium oxide manufacture, storage, and transportation; mixed oxide fuel fabrication, storage, and transportation; and spent fuel and waste issues.

The development, production, stockpiling and use in war of biological and toxin weapons (BTW) are prohibited by international law. However, conversion of BTW facilities has not been dealt with in the existing, open literature on conversion. This is partly due to the fact that BTW programmes to a large degree involve dual-use activities and it is thus difficult to differentiate them form defensive and civilian activities involving pathogenic biological agent and toxins. It is thus also difficult to assess whether or not a BTW facility has actually been converted. This text discuss general aspects of conversion and describe the conversion of former facilities in Germany, the UK, USA, Russia, and Kazakhstan.

The development, production, stockpiling and use in war of biological and toxin weapons (BTW) are prohibited by international law. However, conversion of BTW facilities has not been dealt with in the existing, open literature on conversion. This is partly due to the fact that BTW programmes to a large degree involve dual-use activities and it is thus difficult to differentiate them form defensive and civilian activities involving pathogenic biological agent and toxins. It is thus also difficult to assess whether or not a BTW facility has actually been converted. This text discuss general aspects of conversion and describe the conversion of former facilities in Germany, the UK, USA, Russia, and Kazakhstan.

This text assesses a broad range of effluents (process residues) from a selection of worldwide technologies that have been proposed as alternatives to incineration for the remediation and destruction of chemical warfare agents and associated mat riel. Treatment of metal parts and explosive or energetic materials are considered. The alternative technologies are grouped into three categories, based on process bulk operating temperature: low (0-200`C), medium (200-600`C) and high (600-3500`C). Reaction types considered include neutralization, biodegradation, hydrolysis, electrochemical oxidation, supercritical water oxidation, wet air oxidation, plasma reactions, gasification, hydrogenation, pyrolysis, and many more. These categories include a broad spectrum of processes, some of which have been studied only in the laboratory and some of which are in commercial use for the destruction of hazardous and toxic wastes. The book should provide engineers and decision makers with an understanding of the waste management issues and environmental permit status of alternative technologies.

This text assesses a broad range of effluents (process residues) from a selection of worldwide technologies that have been proposed as alternatives to incineration for the remediation and destruction of chemical warfare agents and associated mat riel. Treatment of metal parts and explosive or energetic materials are considered. The alternative technologies are grouped into three categories, based on process bulk operating temperature: low (0-200`C), medium (200-600`C) and high (600-3500`C). Reaction types considered include neutralization, biodegradation, hydrolysis, electrochemical oxidation, supercritical water oxidation, wet air oxidation, plasma reactions, gasification, hydrogenation, pyrolysis, and many more. These categories include a broad spectrum of processes, some of which have been studied only in the laboratory and some of which are in commercial use for the destruction of hazardous and toxic wastes. The book should provide engineers and decision makers with an understanding of the waste management issues and environmental permit status of alternative technologies.

This text draws together Russian and Western specialists in a discussion of problems associated with the safe elimination of both weapons-grade and reactor-grade plutonium in reactors. The papers generally concern safety issues associated with utilizing plutonium in the nuclear fuel cycle, including facility requirements, licensing issues, proliferation risks, and a variety of advanced concepts for nuclear fuel cycles. The book moves from a discussion of general considerations for plutonium use/disposal to cover aspects of the fuel cycle and reprocessing aspects, its use in existing and near-future reactors, and its use in advanced reactors.

This text draws together Russian and Western specialists in a discussion of problems associated with the safe elimination of both weapons-grade and reactor-grade plutonium in reactors. The papers generally concern safety issues associated with utilizing plutonium in the nuclear fuel cycle, including facility requirements, licensing issues, proliferation risks, and a variety of advanced concepts for nuclear fuel cycles. The book moves from a discussion of general considerations for plutonium use/disposal to cover aspects of the fuel cycle and reprocessing aspects, its use in existing and near-future reactors, and its use in advanced reactors.

A great number of nuclear submarines are due to be decommissioned before the year 2000. The political decisions surrounding the disposal of nuclear compartments, radioactive wastes and spent fuel differ appreciably between the countries that own the boats. The decision makers involved thus need help in comparing and assessing alternative options for the decommissioning of their nuclear submarine fleets. The present volume offers such assistance, with its discussions of the risks associated with long-term water storage of the boats, radioactive and chemical contamination, spent fuel and waste management, and handling and recycling reactor compartments.

A great number of nuclear submarines are due to be decommissioned before the year 2000. The political decisions surrounding the disposal of nuclear compartments, radioactive wastes and spent fuel differ appreciably between the countries that own the boats. The decision makers involved thus need help in comparing and assessing alternative options for the decommissioning of their nuclear submarine fleets. The present volume offers such assistance, with its discussions of the risks associated with long-term water storage of the boats, radioactive and chemical contamination, spent fuel and waste management, and handling and recycling reactor compartments.

Besides its obvious destructive potential, military R&D also serves to protect human lives, equipment and facilities against the effects of weapons. Concepts have therefore been developed that improve safety of stationary and mobile facilities against pressure waves, thermal radiation and fire. Effective, fast fire extinguishing equipment has been designed for tank compartments and motors. Closed buildings are demolished and landmines are removed with gas and dust explosions. Stringent safety requirements have been developed for the production of ammunition and explosives. Military and related industries have accumulated a vast knowledge and sophisticated experience that are very valuable in a variety of civil applications. The knowledge is based on theoretical and experimental research work, the origin of which sometimes dates back many centuries. It has often been classified and therefore has remained unknown to the civilian population, until now.

Besides its obvious destructive potential, military R&D also serves to protect human lives, equipment and facilities against the effects of weapons. Concepts have therefore been developed that improve safety of stationary and mobile facilities against pressure waves, thermal radiation and fire. Effective, fast fire extinguishing equipment has been designed for tank compartments and motors. Closed buildings are demolished and landmines are removed with gas and dust explosions. Stringent safety requirements have been developed for the production of ammunition and explosives. Military and related industries have accumulated a vast knowledge and sophisticated experience that are very valuable in a variety of civil applications. The knowledge is based on theoretical and experimental research work, the origin of which sometimes dates back many centuries. It has often been classified and therefore has remained unknown to the civilian population, until now.