Routledge Studies in Language and Identity – serie

Research Companion to Language and Country Branding brings together entirely new interdisciplinary research conducted by scholars working on various sociolinguistic, semiotic, anthropological and discursive analytical aspects of country branding all over the world.Branding is a process of identity construction, whereby countries gain visibility and put themselves on the world map as distinctive entities by drawing on their history, culture, economy, society, geography, and their people. Through branding, countries aim not only at establishing their uniqueness but also, and perhaps most importantly, at attracting tourism, investments, high quality human capital, as well as at forging financial, military, political and social alliances. Against this backdrop, this volume explores how countries and regions imagine and portray others and themselves in terms of gender, ethnicity, and diversity today as well as the past. In this respect, the book examines how branding differs from other, related policies and practices, such as nation building, banal nationalism, and populism.This volume is an essential reference for students, researchers, and practitioners with an interest in country, nation, and place branding processes.

African countries and South Africa in particular, being multilingual and multicultural societies, make for exciting sociolinguistic and applied language analysis in order to tease out the complex relationship between language and identity. This book applies sociolinguistic theory, as well as critical language awareness and translanguaging with its many facets, to various communicative scenarios, both on the continent and in South Africa, in an accessible and practical way. Africa lends itself to such sociolinguistic analysis concerning language, identity and intercultural communication. This book reflects consciously on the North–South debate and the need for us to create our own ways of interpretation emanating from the South and speaking back to the North, and on issues that pertain to the South, including southern Africa. Aspects such as language and power, language planning, policy and implementation, culture, prejudice, social interaction, translanguaging, intercultural communication, education, gender and autoethnography are covered.This is a valuable resource for students studying African sociolinguistics, language and identity, and applied language studies. Anyone interested in the relationship between language and society on the African continent would also find the book easily accessible.

African countries and South Africa in particular, being multilingual and multicultural societies, make for exciting sociolinguistic and applied language analysis in order to tease out the complex relationship between language and identity. This book applies sociolinguistic theory, as well as critical language awareness and translanguaging with its many facets, to various communicative scenarios, both on the continent and in South Africa, in an accessible and practical way. Africa lends itself to such sociolinguistic analysis concerning language, identity and intercultural communication. This book reflects consciously on the North–South debate and the need for us to create our own ways of interpretation emanating from the South and speaking back to the North, and on issues that pertain to the South, including southern Africa. Aspects such as language and power, language planning, policy and implementation, culture, prejudice, social interaction, translanguaging, intercultural communication, education, gender and autoethnography are covered.This is a valuable resource for students studying African sociolinguistics, language and identity, and applied language studies. Anyone interested in the relationship between language and society on the African continent would also find the book easily accessible.

Linguistic Choices in the Contemporary City focuses on how individuals navigate conversation in highly diversified contexts and provides a broad overview of state of the art research in urban sociolinguistics across the globe. Bearing in mind the impact of international travel and migration, the book accounts for the shifting contemporary studies to the workings of language choices in places where people with many different backgrounds meet and exchange ideas. It specifically addresses how people handle language use challenges in a broad range of settings to present themselves positively and meet their information and identity goals. While a speaker’s experience runs like a thread through this volume, the linguistic, cultural and situational focus is as broad as possible. It runs from the language choices of Chinese immigrants to Beijing and Finnish immigrants to Japan to the use of the local lingua franca by motor taxi drivers in Ngaoundéré, Cameroon, and how Hungarian students in their dorm rooms express views on political correctness uninhibitedly. As it turns out, language play, improvisation, humour, lies, as well as highly marked subconscious pronunciation choices, are natural parts of the discourses, and this volume provides numerous and extensive examples of these techniques. For each of the settings discussed, the perspective is taken of personalised linguistic and extra-linguistic styles in tackling communicative challenges. This way, a picture is drawn of how postmodern individuals in extremely different cultural and situational circumstances turn out to have strikingly similar human behaviours and intentions.Linguistic Choices in the Contemporary City is of interest to all those who follow theoretical and methodological developments in this field. It will be of use for upper level students in the fields of Sociolinguistics, Pragmatics, Linguistic Anthropology and related fields in which urban communicative settings are the focus.

Linguistic Choices in the Contemporary City focuses on how individuals navigate conversation in highly diversified contexts and provides a broad overview of state of the art research in urban sociolinguistics across the globe. Bearing in mind the impact of international travel and migration, the book accounts for the shifting contemporary studies to the workings of language choices in places where people with many different backgrounds meet and exchange ideas. It specifically addresses how people handle language use challenges in a broad range of settings to present themselves positively and meet their information and identity goals. While a speaker’s experience runs like a thread through this volume, the linguistic, cultural and situational focus is as broad as possible. It runs from the language choices of Chinese immigrants to Beijing and Finnish immigrants to Japan to the use of the local lingua franca by motor taxi drivers in Ngaoundéré, Cameroon, and how Hungarian students in their dorm rooms express views on political correctness uninhibitedly. As it turns out, language play, improvisation, humour, lies, as well as highly marked subconscious pronunciation choices, are natural parts of the discourses, and this volume provides numerous and extensive examples of these techniques. For each of the settings discussed, the perspective is taken of personalised linguistic and extra-linguistic styles in tackling communicative challenges. This way, a picture is drawn of how postmodern individuals in extremely different cultural and situational circumstances turn out to have strikingly similar human behaviours and intentions.Linguistic Choices in the Contemporary City is of interest to all those who follow theoretical and methodological developments in this field. It will be of use for upper level students in the fields of Sociolinguistics, Pragmatics, Linguistic Anthropology and related fields in which urban communicative settings are the focus.

Envisioned as a much needed celebration of the massive strides made in translation and interpreting studies, this eclectic volume takes stock of the latest cutting-edge research that exemplifies how translation and interpreting might interact with such topics as power, ideological discourse, representation, hegemony and identity.In this exciting volume, we have articles from different language combinations (e.g. Arabic, English, Hungarian and Chinese) and from a wide range of sociopolitical, cultural, and institutional contexts and geographical locales (China, Iran, Malaysia, Russia and Nigeria). Those chapters also draw on a diverse range of theoretical perspectives and methodological approaches (e.g. critical discourse analysis, Bourdieu’s sociological theories, corpus linguistics, narrative theory and structuration theory), focusing on translation and interpreting relating to various settings and specialised genres (traditional media, digital media, subtitling, manga, etc.). As such, this volume serves as a dynamic forum for intercultural and interlingual communication and an exciting arena for interdisciplinary dialogues, thus enabling us to look beyond the traditionally more static, mechanical and linguistics-oriented views of translation and interpreting. This book appeals to scholars and students interested in translation and interpreting studies and issues of power, ideology, identity in interlingual and intercultural communication.

Envisioned as a much needed celebration of the massive strides made in translation and interpreting studies, this eclectic volume takes stock of the latest cutting-edge research that exemplifies how translation and interpreting might interact with such topics as power, ideological discourse, representation, hegemony and identity.In this exciting volume, we have articles from different language combinations (e.g. Arabic, English, Hungarian and Chinese) and from a wide range of sociopolitical, cultural, and institutional contexts and geographical locales (China, Iran, Malaysia, Russia and Nigeria). Those chapters also draw on a diverse range of theoretical perspectives and methodological approaches (e.g. critical discourse analysis, Bourdieu’s sociological theories, corpus linguistics, narrative theory and structuration theory), focusing on translation and interpreting relating to various settings and specialised genres (traditional media, digital media, subtitling, manga, etc.). As such, this volume serves as a dynamic forum for intercultural and interlingual communication and an exciting arena for interdisciplinary dialogues, thus enabling us to look beyond the traditionally more static, mechanical and linguistics-oriented views of translation and interpreting. This book appeals to scholars and students interested in translation and interpreting studies and issues of power, ideology, identity in interlingual and intercultural communication.

This book uses a sociolinguistic framework to explore how language serves as a marker of national identity in conflict zones, focusing on the dystopian representation of Arabic as a minority language in Israel through the perspectives of Israeli Palestinian students. Using a documentary photography research tool, PhotoVoice, minoritized college students from Northern Israel were invited to document and reflect on the signage in their area. Content analysis of students’ reflections revealed not only a problematic linguistic reality in which the presence of Arabic was limited and inaccurate, but also their experience of the space as local inhabitants. The book chapters shed light on their profound perceptions and aspirations as passers-by toward the (mis)representation of their native language in the country. The contribution of the book lies in demonstrating the potential of the innovative tool PhotoVoice in developing awareness of the explicit and implicit messages delivered through linguistic landscapes. It encourages action for achieving utopian, more inclusive linguistic realities where minority languages are appropriately represented.

Mixing and Unmixing Languages uses the politics and practices of language to understand social hierarchies and social change in a post-conflict and post-socialist context.The book focuses on Roma in Prizren, Kosovo, where the author conducted long-term ethnographic fieldwork, using language learning as a central method. Shifts in language practices among this highly multilingual group have reflected the demise of Yugoslav socialism, the rise of ethno-nationalist politics and conflict, and the post-war reversal of power relations in Kosovo. Roma in Prizren nostalgically narrate a past of cosmopolitanism and employment in contrast to the present. Their position today is complex: while they stress their relative integration, this position is fragile in the face of nationalist politics and imported neoliberal economic policies. Within this context, Roma NGO workers have found an economic niche working on projects to protect multiculturalism and minorities, funded by international aid agencies, centred on Romani language. This book discusses the historical trajectory and current configurations of a Romani organisation in the town, the standardisation of Romani and the hierarchical organisation of linguistic forms and language learning, the self-representation of Roma and the ‘gypsy’ image through Romani-language drama, and attitudes to purism, mixing and cosmopolitanism.Mixing and Unmixing Languages is suitable for academics and students in the areas of linguistic anthropology and linguistic ethnography, Romani studies, South-East European studies and sociolinguistics.

Research Companion to Language and Country Branding brings together entirely new interdisciplinary research conducted by scholars working on various sociolinguistic, semiotic, anthropological and discursive analytical aspects of country branding all over the world.Branding is a process of identity construction, whereby countries gain visibility and put themselves on the world map as distinctive entities by drawing on their history, culture, economy, society, geography, and their people. Through branding, countries aim not only at establishing their uniqueness but also, and perhaps most importantly, at attracting tourism, investments, high quality human capital, as well as at forging financial, military, political and social alliances. Against this backdrop, this volume explores how countries and regions imagine and portray others and themselves in terms of gender, ethnicity, and diversity today as well as the past. In this respect, the book examines how branding differs from other, related policies and practices, such as nation building, banal nationalism, and populism.This volume is an essential reference for students, researchers, and practitioners with an interest in country, nation, and place branding processes.

Combining empirical and theoretical approaches from a range of disciplines, Linguistic Identities in the Arab Gulf States examines current issues surrounding language and identity in the Arab Gulf states. Organized in four parts, the book addresses the overarching theme of ‘waves of change’ in relation to language and power, linguistic identities in the media, identities in transition, and language in education.The authors of each chapter are renowned experts in their field and contribute to furthering our understanding of the dynamic, changeable, and socially constructed nature of identities and how identities are often intricately woven into and impacted by local and global developments. Although the book geographically covers Gulf region contexts, many of the concepts and dilemmas discussed are relevant to other highly diverse nations globally. For example, debates surrounding tolerance, diversity, neoliberal ideologies in English-medium instruction (EMI), media representation of language varieties, and sociolinguistic inequalities during coronavirus communication are pertinent to regions outside the Gulf, too.This volume will particularly appeal to students and scholars interested in issues around language and identity, gender, language policy and planning, multilingualism, translingual practice, language in education, and language ideologies.

Combining empirical and theoretical approaches from a range of disciplines, Linguistic Identities in the Arab Gulf States examines current issues surrounding language and identity in the Arab Gulf states. Organized in four parts, the book addresses the overarching theme of ‘waves of change’ in relation to language and power, linguistic identities in the media, identities in transition, and language in education.The authors of each chapter are renowned experts in their field and contribute to furthering our understanding of the dynamic, changeable, and socially constructed nature of identities and how identities are often intricately woven into and impacted by local and global developments. Although the book geographically covers Gulf region contexts, many of the concepts and dilemmas discussed are relevant to other highly diverse nations globally. For example, debates surrounding tolerance, diversity, neoliberal ideologies in English-medium instruction (EMI), media representation of language varieties, and sociolinguistic inequalities during coronavirus communication are pertinent to regions outside the Gulf, too.This volume will particularly appeal to students and scholars interested in issues around language and identity, gender, language policy and planning, multilingualism, translingual practice, language in education, and language ideologies.

Mixing and Unmixing Languages uses the politics and practices of language to understand social hierarchies and social change in a post-conflict and post-socialist context.The book focuses on Roma in Prizren, Kosovo, where the author conducted long-term ethnographic fieldwork, using language learning as a central method. Shifts in language practices among this highly multilingual group have reflected the demise of Yugoslav socialism, the rise of ethno-nationalist politics and conflict, and the post-war reversal of power relations in Kosovo. Roma in Prizren nostalgically narrate a past of cosmopolitanism and employment in contrast to the present. Their position today is complex: while they stress their relative integration, this position is fragile in the face of nationalist politics and imported neoliberal economic policies. Within this context, Roma NGO workers have found an economic niche working on projects to protect multiculturalism and minorities, funded by international aid agencies, centred on Romani language. This book discusses the historical trajectory and current configurations of a Romani organisation in the town, the standardisation of Romani and the hierarchical organisation of linguistic forms and language learning, the self-representation of Roma and the ‘gypsy’ image through Romani-language drama, and attitudes to purism, mixing and cosmopolitanism.Mixing and Unmixing Languages is suitable for academics and students in the areas of linguistic anthropology and linguistic ethnography, Romani studies, South-East European studies and sociolinguistics.

Language and Identity in the Arab World explores the inextricable link between language and identity, referring particularly to the Arab world. Spanning Indonesia to the United States, the Arab world is here imagined as a continually changing one, with the Arab diaspora asserting its linguistic identity across the world.Crucial questions on transforming linguistic landscapes, the role and implications of migration, and the impact of technology on language use are explored by established and emerging scholars in the field of applied and socio-linguistics. The book asks such crucial questions as how language contact affects or transforms identity, how language reflects changing identities among migrant communities, and how language choices contribute to identity construction in social media. As well as appreciating the breadth and scope of the Arab world, this anthology focuses on the transformative role of language within indigenous and migrant communities as they negotiate between their heritage languages and those spoken by the wider society.Investigating the ways in which identity continues to be imagined and re-constructed in and among Arab communities, this book is indispensable to students, teachers, and anyone who is interested in language contact, linguistic landscapes, and minority language retention as well as the intersections of language and technology.

Language and Identity in the Arab World explores the inextricable link between language and identity, referring particularly to the Arab world. Spanning Indonesia to the United States, the Arab world is here imagined as a continually changing one, with the Arab diaspora asserting its linguistic identity across the world.Crucial questions on transforming linguistic landscapes, the role and implications of migration, and the impact of technology on language use are explored by established and emerging scholars in the field of applied and socio-linguistics. The book asks such crucial questions as how language contact affects or transforms identity, how language reflects changing identities among migrant communities, and how language choices contribute to identity construction in social media. As well as appreciating the breadth and scope of the Arab world, this anthology focuses on the transformative role of language within indigenous and migrant communities as they negotiate between their heritage languages and those spoken by the wider society.Investigating the ways in which identity continues to be imagined and re-constructed in and among Arab communities, this book is indispensable to students, teachers, and anyone who is interested in language contact, linguistic landscapes, and minority language retention as well as the intersections of language and technology.

Language, Identity, and Syrian Political Activism on Social Media is an empirical contemporary Arabic sociolinguistic investigation informed by theories and notions developed in the fields of Arabic linguistics, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis and linguistic anthropology. Building on the Bakhtinian concept of linguistic hybridity, this book conducts a longitudinal analysis of Syrian dissidents’ social media practices between 2009 and 2017. It shows how dissidents have used social media to emerge in the discourse about the Syrian conflict and how language has been used symbolically as a tool of social and political engagement in an increasingly complex sociopolitical context. This monograph is ideal for students, sociolinguists and researchers interested in Arabic language and identity.

New Approaches to Language and Identity in Contexts of Migration and Diaspora draws together expertise and contemporary research findings in respect of language and identity in migrant and diasporic contexts throughout the world.Over thirteen chapters, contributors examine the intersection between migration, language, and identity through analyses of migration discourses, language practices, and legal policy, as well as the ideologies embedded and revealed within them. A wide range of subject areas and interdisciplinary approaches are represented, with fifteen authors drawn from the fields of education, intercultural communication, linguistics, geography, migration studies, psychology, and sociology.This volume will primarily appeal to scholars and researchers in fields such as migration, intercultural communication, sociolinguistics, bilingualism, multilingualism, and heritage language learning.

New Approaches to Language and Identity in Contexts of Migration and Diaspora draws together expertise and contemporary research findings in respect of language and identity in migrant and diasporic contexts throughout the world.Over thirteen chapters, contributors examine the intersection between migration, language, and identity through analyses of migration discourses, language practices, and legal policy, as well as the ideologies embedded and revealed within them. A wide range of subject areas and interdisciplinary approaches are represented, with fifteen authors drawn from the fields of education, intercultural communication, linguistics, geography, migration studies, psychology, and sociology.This volume will primarily appeal to scholars and researchers in fields such as migration, intercultural communication, sociolinguistics, bilingualism, multilingualism, and heritage language learning.

This book investigates political and ideological perspectives on the Arabic and Chinese languages through studies of language teaching, linguistic values, identities, education, political discourse, and translation in diverse contexts.Language, Teaching, and Politics in Arabic and Chinese places these two languages side by side, seeking to highlight potential points of connection across various domains as well as common trends and processes. The book addresses teaching practices, didactic tools, and ideological stances, with attention to standard varieties, local dialects, and minority languages, alongside the political dimensions of education and the functions of political language and its translation, through the lenses of different disciplines and relevant methodologies. The 14 chapters engage with a variety of timely and relevant issues for contemporary society, including language teaching, language variation, language identity, language ideologies, language policies, political discourse, translation, and, more broadly, the role of language in conveying political and ideological views. The studies are rooted in disciplines such as theoretical and applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, language education, and translation studies, and they draw upon a range of approaches and methodologies.This volume will appeal to instructors, scholars, researchers, and students interested in second language pedagogy and linguistics, as well as the interrelations between language, teaching, ideology, and politics within and beyond Arabic and Chinese language studies.

This book investigates political and ideological perspectives on the Arabic and Chinese languages through studies of language teaching, linguistic values, identities, education, political discourse, and translation in diverse contexts.Language, Teaching, and Politics in Arabic and Chinese places these two languages side by side, seeking to highlight potential points of connection across various domains as well as common trends and processes. The book addresses teaching practices, didactic tools, and ideological stances, with attention to standard varieties, local dialects, and minority languages, alongside the political dimensions of education and the functions of political language and its translation, through the lenses of different disciplines and relevant methodologies. The 14 chapters engage with a variety of timely and relevant issues for contemporary society, including language teaching, language variation, language identity, language ideologies, language policies, political discourse, translation, and, more broadly, the role of language in conveying political and ideological views. The studies are rooted in disciplines such as theoretical and applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, language education, and translation studies, and they draw upon a range of approaches and methodologies.This volume will appeal to instructors, scholars, researchers, and students interested in second language pedagogy and linguistics, as well as the interrelations between language, teaching, ideology, and politics within and beyond Arabic and Chinese language studies.

Multilingualism in Italian Migrant Settings investigates the plural linguistic practices of the migrants in a particular refugee centre in Italy, the CAS (centri di accoglienza straordinaria; “extraordinary refugee centre”).This book offers a practical and rigorous study of contact situations surrounding migrants from areas with complex repertoires. Language is inherently connected to migration, especially through its role as a principal tool for communication.This volume places multilingualism in migratory contexts to comprehend how plurilingual migrants move freely between languages, and to evaluate their role in the linguistic landscape of the host country.This monograph will appeal to scholars specialising in sociolinguistics and contact linguistics. The volume will also be informative for postgraduate students in the field of sociolinguistics, with a focus on migration and language use.

Multilingualism in Italian Migrant Settings investigates the plural linguistic practices of the migrants in a particular refugee centre in Italy, the CAS (centri di accoglienza straordinaria; “extraordinary refugee centre”).This book offers a practical and rigorous study of contact situations surrounding migrants from areas with complex repertoires. Language is inherently connected to migration, especially through its role as a principal tool for communication.This volume places multilingualism in migratory contexts to comprehend how plurilingual migrants move freely between languages, and to evaluate their role in the linguistic landscape of the host country.This monograph will appeal to scholars specialising in sociolinguistics and contact linguistics. The volume will also be informative for postgraduate students in the field of sociolinguistics, with a focus on migration and language use.

This book offers a multi-contributor view on the linguistic landscape research in Spain, focusing on both monolingual and bilingual regions of Spain with an interest in initiatives that promote social and linguistic justice without neglecting migrant and international languages in the territory. The agency of speakers is highlighted, as well as the processes of linguistic hybridization and identity claims that are created in Spain. This volume analyzes the semiotic meaning of different languages, varieties, and discursive practices in different Spanish contexts from an ethnographic, multimodal, and critical perspective. It observes how some languages, varieties, and repertoires are privileged in top-down institutional environments, whilst others respond to bottom-up initiatives that contemplate complex processes of identity construction in Spain, in order to decide whether or not a greater balance between majority and minority languages is achieved in different contexts and spaces nowadays.

In Arabic in Israel, Muhammad Amara analyses the status of Arabic following the creation of the State of Israel and documents its impact on the individual and collective identity of Israel’s Palestinian Arab citizens. The interplay of language and identity in conflict situations is also examined. This work represents the culmination of many years of research on Arabic linguistic repertoire and educational policy regarding the language of the Palestinian citizens of Israel. It draws all of these factors together while linking them to local, regional and global developments. Its perspective is interdisciplinary and, as such, examines the topic from a number of angles including linguistic, social, cultural and political.

In Arabic in Israel, Muhammad Amara analyses the status of Arabic following the creation of the State of Israel and documents its impact on the individual and collective identity of Israel’s Palestinian Arab citizens. The interplay of language and identity in conflict situations is also examined. This work represents the culmination of many years of research on Arabic linguistic repertoire and educational policy regarding the language of the Palestinian citizens of Israel. It draws all of these factors together while linking them to local, regional and global developments. Its perspective is interdisciplinary and, as such, examines the topic from a number of angles including linguistic, social, cultural and political.

Identity and Dialect Performance discusses the relationship between identity and dialects. It starts from the assumption that the use of dialect is not just a product of social and demographic factors, but can also be an intentional performance of identity. Dialect performance is related to identity construction and in a highly globalised world, the linguistic repertoire has increased rapidly, thereby changing our conventional assumptions about dialects and their usage. The key outstanding feature of this particular book is that it spans an extensive range of communities and dialects; Italy, Hong Kong, Morocco, Egypt, Syria, Japan, Germany, The Sudan, The Netherlands, Nigeria, Spain, US, UK, French Guiana, Colombia,and Libya.

Identity and Dialect Performance discusses the relationship between identity and dialects. It starts from the assumption that the use of dialect is not just a product of social and demographic factors, but can also be an intentional performance of identity. Dialect performance is related to identity construction and in a highly globalised world, the linguistic repertoire has increased rapidly, thereby changing our conventional assumptions about dialects and their usage. The key outstanding feature of this particular book is that it spans an extensive range of communities and dialects; Italy, Hong Kong, Morocco, Egypt, Syria, Japan, Germany, The Sudan, The Netherlands, Nigeria, Spain, US, UK, French Guiana, Colombia,and Libya.

Language, Identity, and Syrian Political Activism on Social Media is an empirical contemporary Arabic sociolinguistic investigation informed by theories and notions developed in the fields of Arabic linguistics, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis and linguistic anthropology. Building on the Bakhtinian concept of linguistic hybridity, this book conducts a longitudinal analysis of Syrian dissidents’ social media practices between 2009 and 2017. It shows how dissidents have used social media to emerge in the discourse about the Syrian conflict and how language has been used symbolically as a tool of social and political engagement in an increasingly complex sociopolitical context. This monograph is ideal for students, sociolinguists and researchers interested in Arabic language and identity.

A rare contribution to global translation as a ‘cross-cultural-open-concept’, Arabic Translation Across Discourses provides explorations of Arabic translation as an instance of transcultural and translingual encounters (transculguaging). This book examines the application and interrogation of discourses of translation in the translation of discourses (religion, literature, media, politics, technology, community, audiovisual, and automated systems of communication for translation). The contributors provide insights into the concerns and debates of Arabic translation as a tradition with local, yet global dimensions of translation and intercultural studies.This volume will be of great interest to students and researchers of all translation studies, but will also provide a rich source for those studying and researching history, geopolitics, intercultural studies, globalization, and allied disciplines.