Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics – serie
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124 produkter
124 produkter
1 592 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Bonding in Microsystem Technology starts with descriptions of terminology, kinds of microsystems and market analysis. Followed by the presentation of mechanisms of wet etching, set of process parameters, description of micromachining methods, examples of procedures, process flow-charts and applications of basic micromechanical structures in microsystems are shown. Next, high-temperature, low temperature and room-temperature bonding and their applications in microsystem technology are presented. The following part of the book contains the detailed description of anodic bonding, starting from analysis of properties of glasses suitable for anodic bonding, and discussion of the nature of the process. Next all types of anodic bonding and sealing procedures used in microsystem technology are presented. This part of the book finishes with examples of applications of anodic bonding in microsystem technology taken from the literature but mainly based on the author’s personal experience.
1 064 kr
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In the deep sub-micron regime, the power consumption has become one of the most important issues for competitive design of digital circuits. Due to dramatically increasing leakage currents, the power consumption does not take advantage of technology scaling as before. State-of-art power reduction techniques like the use of multiple supply and threshold voltages, transistor stack forcing and power gating are discussed with respect to implementation and power saving capability. Focus is given especially on technology dependencies, process variations and technology scaling. Design and implementation issues are discussed with respect to the trade-off between power reduction, performance degradation, and system level constraints. A complete top-down design flow is demonstrated for power gating techniques introducing new design methodologies for the switch sizing task and circuit blocks for data-retention and block activation. The leakage reduction ratio and the minimum power-down time are introduced as figures of merit to describe the power gating technique on system level and give a relation to physical circuit parameters. Power Management of Digital Circuits in Deep Sub-Micron CMOS Technologies mainly deals with circuit design but also addresses the interface between circuit and system level design on the one side and between circuit and physical design on the other side.
2 648 kr
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The need for advanced thermal management materials in electronic packaging has been widely recognized as thermal challenges become barriers to the electronic industry’s ability to provide continued improvements in device and system performance.
2 171 kr
Skickas inom 5-8 vardagar
The need for advanced thermal management materials in electronic packaging has been widely recognized as thermal challenges become barriers to the electronic industry’s ability to provide continued improvements in device and system performance. With increased performance requirements for smaller, more capable, and more efficient electronic power devices, systems ranging from active electronically scanned radar arrays to web servers all require components that can dissipate heat efficiently. This requires that the materials have high capability of dissipating heat and maintaining compatibility with the die and electronic packaging. In response to critical needs, there have been revolutionary advances in thermal management materials and technologies for active and passive cooling that promise integrable and cost-effective thermal management solutions. This book meets the need for a comprehensive approach to advanced thermal management in electronic packaging, with coverage of the fundamentals of heat transfer, component design guidelines, materials selection and assessment, air, liquid, and thermoelectric cooling, characterization techniques and methodology, processing and manufacturing technology, balance between cost and performance, and application niches. The final chapter presents a roadmap and future perspective on developments in advanced thermal management materials for electronic packaging.
Del 17 - Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
System-level Test and Validation of Hardware/Software Systems
Häftad, Engelska, 2010
1 064 kr
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New manufacturing technologies have made possible the integration of entire systems on a single chip. This new design paradigm, termed system-on-chip (SOC), together with its associated manufacturing problems, represents a real challenge for designers. SOC is also reshaping approaches to test and validation activities. These are beginning to migrate from the traditional register-transfer or gate levels of abstraction to the system level. Until now, test and validation have not been supported by system-level design tools so designers have lacked the infrastructure to exploit all the benefits stemming from the adoption of the system level of abstraction. Research efforts are already addressing this issue. This monograph provides a state-of-the-art overview of the current validation and test techniques by covering all aspects of the subject including: modeling of bugs and defects; stimulus generation for validation and test purposes (including timing errors; design for testability.
1 095 kr
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New manufacturing technologies have made possible the integration of entire systems on a single chip. This new design paradigm, termed system-on-chip (SOC), together with its associated manufacturing problems, represents a real challenge for designers.SOC is also reshaping approaches to test and validation activities. These are beginning to migrate from the traditional register-transfer or gate levels of abstraction to the system level. Until now, test and validation have not been supported by system-level design tools so designers have lacked the infrastructure to exploit all the benefits stemming from the adoption of the system level of abstraction. Research efforts are already addressing this issue.This monograph provides a state-of-the-art overview of the current validation and test techniques by covering all aspects of the subject including:modeling of bugs and defects;stimulus generation for validation and test purposes (including timing errors;design for testability.
Del 13 - Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
Silicon Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits
Inbunden, Engelska, 2019
2 120 kr
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To cover the topic comprehensively, the book presents detailed descriptions of OEICs for a wide range of applications: from various optical sensors, smart sensors, image sensors, 3D-sensors and optical storage systems, to fiber receivers and receivers for optical wireless communication, as well as single-photon detection.
1 275 kr
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This book describes the physical basis of microwave electronics and related topics, such as microwave vacuum and microwave semiconductor devices.It comprehensively discusses the main types of microwave vacuum and microwave semiconductor devices, their principles of action, theory, parameters and characteristics, as well as ways of increasing the frequency limit of various devices up to the terahertz frequency band. Further, it applies a unified approach to describe charged particle interaction within electromagnetic fields and the motion laws of charged particles in various media. The book is intended as a manual for researchers and engineers, as well as advanced undergraduate and graduate students.
Del 65 - Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
Introduction to the Theory of Dielectric Resonators
Inbunden, Engelska, 2024
1 592 kr
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Embark on a comprehensive exploration of high-Q dielectric resonators. The book concludes by delving into the time domain, exploring pulse scattering and radiation by antenna arrays of dielectric resonators.
Del 46 - Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
Advanced Materials for Integrated Optical Waveguides
Inbunden, Engelska, 2013
1 592 kr
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This book provides a comprehensive introduction to integrated optical waveguides for information technology and data communications. Integrated coverage ranges from advanced materials, fabrication, and characterization techniques to guidelines for design and simulation. A concluding chapter offers perspectives on likely future trends and challenges. The dramatic scaling down of feature sizes has driven exponential improvements in semiconductor productivity and performance in the past several decades. However, with the potential of gigascale integration, size reduction is approaching a physical limitation due to the negative impact on resistance and inductance of metal interconnects with current copper-trace based technology. Integrated optics provides a potentially lower-cost, higher performance alternative to electronics in optical communication systems. Optical interconnects, in which light can be generated, guided, modulated, amplified, and detected, can provide greater bandwidth, lower power consumption, decreased interconnect delays, resistance to electromagnetic interference, and reduced crosstalk when integrated into standard electronic circuits. Integrated waveguide optics represents a truly multidisciplinary field of science and engineering, with continued growth requiring new developments in modeling, further advances in materials science, and innovations in integration platforms. In addition, the processing and fabrication of these new devices must be optimized in conjunction with the development of accurate and precise characterization and testing methods. Students and professionals in materials science and engineering will find Advanced Materials for Integrated Optical Waveguides to be an invaluable reference for meeting these research and development goals.
Del 53 - Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
Lattices of Dielectric Resonators
Inbunden, Engelska, 2015
1 064 kr
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This book provides the analytical theory of complex systems composed of a large number of high-Q dielectric resonators. Spherical and cylindrical dielectric resonators with inferior and also whispering gallery oscillations allocated in various lattices are considered. A new approach to S-matrix parameter calculations based on perturbation theory of Maxwell equations, developed for a number of high-Q dielectric bodies, is introduced. All physical relationships are obtained in analytical form and are suitable for further computations. Essential attention is given to a new unified formalism of the description of scattering processes. The general scattering task for coupled eigen oscillations of the whole system of dielectric resonators is described. The equations for the expansion coefficients are explained in an applicable way. The temporal Green functions for the dielectric resonator are presented. The scattering process of short pulses in dielectric filter structures, dielectric antennas and lattices of dielectric resonators is discussed.
Del 54 - Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
Optoelectronic Circuits in Nanometer CMOS Technology
Inbunden, Engelska, 2016
1 064 kr
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This book describes the newest implementations ofintegrated photodiodes fabricated in nanometer standard CMOS technologies. Italso includes the required fundamentals, the state-of-the-art, and the designof high-performance laser drivers, transimpedance amplifiers, equalizers, andlimiting amplifiers fabricated in nanometer CMOS technologies. This book showsthe newest results for the performance of integrated optical receivers, laserdrivers, modulator drivers and optical sensors in nanometer standard CMOStechnologies. Nanometer CMOS technologies rapidly advanced, enablingthe implementation of integrated optical receivers for high data rates ofseveral Giga-bits per second and of high-pixel count optical imagers andsensors. In particular, low cost silicon CMOS optoelectronic integratedcircuits became very attractive because they can be extensively applied toshort-distance optical communications, such as local area network, chip-to-chipand board-to-board interconnects as well as to imaging and medical sensors.
Del 53 - Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
Lattices of Dielectric Resonators
Häftad, Engelska, 2016
1 064 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This book provides the analytical theory of complex systems composed of a large number of high-Q dielectric resonators. The scattering process of short pulses in dielectric filter structures, dielectric antennas and lattices of dielectric resonators is discussed.
Del 46 - Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
Advanced Materials for Integrated Optical Waveguides
Häftad, Engelska, 2016
1 592 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This book provides a comprehensive introduction to integrated optical waveguides for information technology and data communications. Integrated coverage ranges from advanced materials, fabrication, and characterization techniques to guidelines for design and simulation. A concluding chapter offers perspectives on likely future trends and challenges. The dramatic scaling down of feature sizes has driven exponential improvements in semiconductor productivity and performance in the past several decades. However, with the potential of gigascale integration, size reduction is approaching a physical limitation due to the negative impact on resistance and inductance of metal interconnects with current copper-trace based technology. Integrated optics provides a potentially lower-cost, higher performance alternative to electronics in optical communication systems. Optical interconnects, in which light can be generated, guided, modulated, amplified, and detected, can provide greater bandwidth, lower power consumption, decreased interconnect delays, resistance to electromagnetic interference, and reduced crosstalk when integrated into standard electronic circuits. Integrated waveguide optics represents a truly multidisciplinary field of science and engineering, with continued growth requiring new developments in modeling, further advances in materials science, and innovations in integration platforms. In addition, the processing and fabrication of these new devices must be optimized in conjunction with the development of accurate and precise characterization and testing methods. Students and professionals in materials science and engineering will find Advanced Materials for Integrated Optical Waveguides to be an invaluable reference for meeting these research and development goals.
Del 58 - Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
Solid-State-Drives (SSDs) Modeling
Simulation Tools & Strategies
Inbunden, Engelska, 2017
1 555 kr
Skickas inom 5-8 vardagar
This book introduces simulation tools and strategies for complex systems of solid-state-drives (SSDs) which consist of a flash multi-core microcontroller plus NAND flash memories. It provides a broad overview of the most popular simulation tools, with special focus on open source solutions. VSSIM, NANDFlashSim and DiskSim are benchmarked against performances of real SSDs under different traffic workloads. PROs and CONs of each simulator are analyzed, and it is clearly indicated which kind of answers each of them can give and at a what price. It is explained, that speed and precision do not go hand in hand, and it is important to understand when to simulate what, and with which tool. Being able to simulate SSD’s performances is mandatory to meet time-to-market, together with product cost and quality.Over the last few years the authors developed an advanced simulator named “SSDExplorer” which has been used to evaluate multiple phenomena with great accuracy, from QoS (Quality Of Service) to Read Retry, from LDPC Soft Information to power, from Flash aging to FTL. SSD simulators are also addressed in a broader context in this book, i.e. the analysis of what happens when SSDs are connected to the OS (Operating System) and to the end-user application (for example, a database search). The authors walk the reader through the full simulation flow of a real system-level by combining SSD Explorer with the QEMU virtual platform. The reader will be impressed by the level of know-how and the combination of models that such simulations are asking for.
Del 60 - Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
Field Emission Electronics
Inbunden, Engelska, 2017
1 909 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This book is dedicated to field emission electronics, a promising field at the interface between “classic” vacuum electronics and nanotechnology. In addition to theoretical models, it includes detailed descriptions of experimental and research techniques and production technologies for different types of field emitters based on various construction principles. It particularly focuses on research into and production of field cathodes and electron guns using recently developed nanomaterials and carbon nanotubes. Further, it discusses the applications of field emission cathodes in new technologies such as light sources, flat screens, microwave and X-ray devices.
1 275 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This book describes the physical basis of microwave electronics and related topics, such as microwave vacuum and microwave semiconductor devices.It comprehensively discusses the main types of microwave vacuum and microwave semiconductor devices, their principles of action, theory, parameters and characteristics, as well as ways of increasing the frequency limit of various devices up to the terahertz frequency band. Further, it applies a unified approach to describe charged particle interaction within electromagnetic fields and the motion laws of charged particles in various media. The book is intended as a manual for researchers and engineers, as well as advanced undergraduate and graduate students.
Del 54 - Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
Optoelectronic Circuits in Nanometer CMOS Technology
Häftad, Engelska, 2018
1 064 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This book describes the newest implementations ofintegrated photodiodes fabricated in nanometer standard CMOS technologies. This book showsthe newest results for the performance of integrated optical receivers, laserdrivers, modulator drivers and optical sensors in nanometer standard CMOStechnologies.
Del 57 - Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
3D Microelectronic Packaging
From Fundamentals to Applications
Häftad, Engelska, 2018
1 909 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This volume provides a comprehensive reference for graduate students and professionals in both academia and industry on the fundamentals, processing details, and applications of 3D microelectronic packaging, an industry trend for future microelectronic packages.
Del 58 - Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
Solid-State-Drives (SSDs) Modeling
Simulation Tools & Strategies
Häftad, Engelska, 2018
1 555 kr
Skickas inom 5-8 vardagar
This book introduces simulation tools and strategies for complex systems of solid-state-drives (SSDs) which consist of a flash multi-core microcontroller plus NAND flash memories.
Del 60 - Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
Field Emission Electronics
Häftad, Engelska, 2018
1 909 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This book is dedicated to field emission electronics, a promising field at the interface between “classic” vacuum electronics and nanotechnology. It particularly focuses on research into and production of field cathodes and electron guns using recently developed nanomaterials and carbon nanotubes.
Del 10 - Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
Lock-in Thermography
Basics and Use for Evaluating Electronic Devices and Materials
Inbunden, Engelska, 2019
1 697 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Reviewing various experimental approaches to LIT, particularly the commercial LIT systems available, this 3rd edition introduces new LIT applications, such as illuminated LIT applied to solar cells, non-thermal LIT lifetime mapping and LIT application to spin caloritronics problems.
Current Sense Amplifiers for Embedded SRAM in High-Performance System-on-a-Chip Designs
Inbunden, Engelska, 2003
1 064 kr
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This book provides a systematic and comprehensive insight into current sensing techniques. In addition to describing theoretical and practical aspects of current sensing, the author derives practical design guidelines for achieving an optimal performance through a systematic analysis of different circuit principles. Voltage sense amplifiers are also considered, since they are used as a final comparator in a current sense amplifier. Innovative concepts, such as compensation of the bitline multiplexer and auto-power-down, are elucidated. Although the focus is on embedded static random access memory (SRAM), the material presented applies to any current-providing memory type, e.g. also to emerging memory technologies such as MRAM. The book will appeal to design engineers in industry and also to researchers wishing to learn about, and apply, current sensing techniques.
1 064 kr
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This book presents several circuits that are required for the full integration of an optical transmitter in standard CMOS. The main emphasis is placed on high-speed receivers with a bitrate of up to 1 Gb/s. The possibility of including the photodiode in a receiver is investigated and the problems encountered are discussed. Concerning the transmitter aspect, a CMOS LED driver is described. The final chapter addresses electrical interference problems on a chip and proposes countermeasures. The various circuits in this book have all been realized and measurement results are presented, paving the way for single chip communication systems in which the optical interfaces are integrated on the same die as the digital circuitry.
3 177 kr
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Issues relating to the high-K gate dielectric are among the greatest challenges for the evolving International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). More than just an historical overview, this book will assess previous and present approaches related to scaling the gate dielectric and their impact, along with the creative directions and forthcoming challenges that will define the future of gate dielectric scaling technology. Topics include: an extensive review of Moore's Law, the classical regime for SiO2 gate dielectrics; the transition to silicon oxynitride gate dielectrics; the transition to high-K gate dielectrics (including the drive towards equivalent oxide thickness in the single-digit nanometer regime); and future directions and issues for ultimate technology generation scaling. The vision, wisdom, and experience of the team of authors will make this book a timely, relevant, and interesting, resource focusing on fundamentals of the 50 nm Technology Generation and beyond.
Del 20 - Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
Low Power VCO Design in CMOS
Inbunden, Engelska, 2005
1 095 kr
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The performance of voltage controlled oscillators (VCO) is of extreme importance for any telecommunication or data communication system. This practical guide develops a systematic, fully-integrated LC-VCO design for low power and low phase noise, especially useful to meet the demands on mobile devices such as cell phones. The proposed VCO design approaches are experimentally verified with several fully integrated CMOS VCOs. The concise presentation is offered in three parts (VCO design; CMOS devices for VCO design; and fully-integrated CMOS VCor GSM) and supplemented by an appendix summarizing the state of the art.
2 126 kr
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Stressing common characteristics and real applications of the most used microcontrollers, this practical guide provides readers with hands-on knowledge of how to implement three families of microcontrollers (HC11, AVR, and 8051). Unlike the rest of the ocean of literature on individual chips, Microcontrollers in Practice supplieS side-by-side comparisons and an overview that treats the systems as resources available for implementation. Packed with hundred of practical examples and exercises to foster mastery of concepts and details, the guide also includes several extended projects. By treating the less expensive 8-bit and RISC microcontrollers, this information-dense manual equips students and home-experimenters with the know-how to put these devices into operation.
1 592 kr
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Gettering Defects in Semiconductors fulfills three basic purposes:– to systematize the experience and research in exploiting various gettering techniques in microelectronics and nanoelectronics;– to identify new directions in research, particularly to enhance the perspective of professionals and young researchers and specialists;– to fill a gap in the contemporary literature on the underlying semiconductor-material theory.The authors address not only well-established gettering techniques but also describe contemporary trends in gettering technologies from an international perspective. The types and properties of structural defects in semiconductors, their generating and their transforming mechanisms during fabrication are described. The primary emphasis is placed on classifying and describing specific gettering techniques, their specificity arising from both their position in a general technological process and the regimes of their application. This book addresses both engineers and material scientists interested in semiconducting materials theory and also undergraduate and graduate students in solid–state microelectronics and nanoelectronics. A comprehensive list of references provides readers with direction for further reading.
Continuous-Time Sigma-Delta A/D Conversion
Fundamentals, Performance Limits and Robust Implementations
Inbunden, Engelska, 2005
1 909 kr
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Sigma-delta A/D converters are a key building block in wireless and multimedia applications. This comprehensive book deals with all relevant aspects arising during the analysis, design and simulation of the now widespread continuous-time implementations of sigma-delta modulators. The results of several years of research by the authors in the field of CT sigma-delta modulators are covered, including the analysis and modeling of different CT modulator architectures, CT/DT loop filter synthesis, a detailed error analysis of all components, and possible compensation/correction schemes for the non-ideal behavior in CT sigma-delta modulators. Guidance for obtaining low-power consumption and several practical implementations are also presented. It is shown that all the proposed new theories, architectures and possible correction techniques have been confirmed by measurements on discrete or integrated circuits. Quantitative results are also provided, thus enabling prediction of the resulting accuracy.
535 kr
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Thewritingofthisbookhasbeeninspiredbytheexperienceofteachinga courseonDetectionandSignalProcessingtograduatestudentsoveraperiod ofmanyyears. Itwasstrikingthatstudentswerenotonlyfascinatedbythe variousdetectionprinciplesandtechnicalperformancesofpracticalsystems, butalsobytheprofessionalismoftheinvolved typical physicalengine- ing. Usuallystudentsarethoroughlytaughtindi?erentcoursesofphysics, whicharemostlystudiedasisolated?elds. Thecourseondetectionands- nalprocessingisbasedontypicalresultsthatwereestablishedindi?erent disciplines like optics, solid state physics, thermodynamics, mathematical statistics,Fouriertransforms,andelectroniccircuitry. Theirsimultaneousand interdependentapplicationbroadenstheinsightofmutualrelationsinthev- ious?elds. Forinstancethe?uctuationsofthermalbackgroundradiationcan bederivedeitherwiththeblackbodytheoryorindependentlywithther- dynamicstoarriveatthesameresult. AlsotheappliedFourierrelationsin thefrequencyandtimedomainsarenolongerabstractmathematicalman- ulationsbutpracticaltoolsandprobablyeasiertounderstandintheapplied technique. Estimatesoftheorderofmagnitudeswithcomparisonofrelevant physicale?ectsnecessarybydesigningadeviceareveryinstructive.Ingeneral theachievementsofvariousdisciplinesarebroughttogethertodesignandto evaluatequantitativelythetechnicalperformancesofdetectiontechniques. Thustheinterestfordetectionandsignalprocessingisbothtolearnthe knowledgefordesigningpracticaldetectionsystemsandtogetacquainted withthethinkingofphysicalengineering. The?rstpartofthebookisdevotedtonoisephenomenaandradiation detectors. Fundamentaldescriptionswithquantitativeanalysesoftheund- lyingphysicalprocessesofbothdetectorsandaccompanyingnoiseleadto understandthepotentialswithrespecttosensitivityandoperatingfrequency domain. Thesecondpartdealswithampli?cationproblemsandtherecovery ofrepetitivesignalsburiedinnoise. Thelastpartisdevotedtosolvingthe problemsconnectedwithreachingtheultimatedetectionlimitorquantum limit. Thisisdoneforheterodynedetectionandphotoncounting. Although VIII Preface heterodynedetectionyieldstheultimatesensitivity,itsspatialmodesel- tivityand,ingeneral,thelowspectralpowerdensityofthesignalrequire sophisticatedprovisions. Thisisdiscussedindetail.Theinherentproblemsare analyzedandappropriatetechnicalsolutionsaredescribedtoreachtheul- matesensitivityfordetectingincoherentradiationandcommunicationsignals thatarerandomlyDopplershifted. Theresultsareillustratedwithexamples ofspacecommunication. Hengelo(O),January2006 W. J. Witteman Contents 1 RandomFluctuations...1 1. 1 Introduction...1 1. 2 ThermalNoiseofResistance...2 1. 3 ShotNoise...5 1. 3. 1 SpectralDistribution ...6 1. 3. 2 Photons...10 1. 4 FlickerNoise...10 1. 5 Generation-RecombinationNoise...10 1. 6 ThermalRadiationandItsFluctuations...13 1. 7 TemperatureFluctuationsofSmallBodies...18 1. 7. 1 AbsorptionandEmissionFluctuations...20 2 Signal-NoiseRelations...21 2. 1 SignalLimitation...22 2. 2 BackgroundLimitation...22 2. 2. 1 IdealDetection...24 2. 3 JohnsonNoise...27 2. 4 DarkCurrentNoise...27 2. 5 NoiseandSensitivity...28 2. 6 Ampli?erNoiseandMismatching...28 3 ThermalDetectors...31 3. 1 ThermocoupleandThermopile...31 3. 2 Bolometer...36 3. 2. 1 MetallicBolometer...39 3. 2. 2 Thermistor...40 3. 3 PyroelectricDetector...44 4 VacuumPhotodetectors...51 4. 1 VacuumPhotodiode...52 4. 2 Photomultiplier...56 X Contents 5 SemiconductorPhotodetectors...61 5. 1 Photoconductors...61 5. 1. 1 AnalysisoftheDetectionProcess...64 5. 1. 2 FrequencyResponse ...69 5. 2 Photodiodes...69 5. 2. 1 P-NJunction...70 5. 2. 2 Current-VoltageCharacteristic...72 5. 2. 3 PhotonExcitation...75 5. 2. 4 OperationalModes...79 5. 2. 5 OpenCircuit ...80 5. 2. 6 CurrentCircuit...82 5. 2. 7 Reverse-BiasedCircuit...83 5. 3 AvalanchePhotodiodes...