Atmospheric and Oceanographic Sciences Library – serie

This is an introductory textbook on global spectral modeling designed for senior-level undergraduates and possibly for first-year graduate students. This text starts with an introduction to elementary finite-difference methods and moves on towards the gradual description of sophisticated dynamical and physical models in spherical coordinates. Computational aspects of the spectral transform method, the planetary boundary layer physics, the physics of precipitation processes in large-scale models, the radiative transfer including effects of diagnostic clouds and diurnal cycle, the surface energy balance over land and ocean, and the treatment of mountains are some issues that are addressed. The topic of model initialization includes the treatment of normal modes and physical processes. A concluding chapter covers the spectral energetics as a diagnostic tool for model evaluation. This revised second edition of the text also includes three additional chapters. Chapter 11 deals with the formulation of a regional spectral model for mesoscale modeling which uses a double Fourier expansion of data and model equations for its transform. Chapter 12 deals with ensemble modeling. This is a new and important area for numerical weather and climate prediction. Finally, yet another new area that has to do with adaptive observational strategies is included as Chapter 13. It foretells where data deficiencies may reside in model from an exploratory ensemble run of experiments and the spread of such forecasts.

This book provides a detailed description of light absorption and absorbents in seawaters with respect to provenance, region of the sea, depth of the occurrence and trophicity. The text is based on a substantial body of contemporary research results taken from the subject literature (over 400 references) and the work of the authors over a period of 30 years.

Only a few centuries ago, we knew very little about our planet Earth. The Earth was considered flat by many although it was postulated by a few like Aristotle that it is spherical based on observations that included the study of lunar eclipses. Much later, Christopher Columbus successfully sailed to the West to discover the New World and Ferdinand Magellan’s ship circumnavigated the globe to prove once and for all that the Earth is indeed a sphere. Worldwide navigation and explorations that followed made it clear that the Earth is huge and rather impossible to study solely by foot or by water. The advent of air travel made it a lot easier to do exploratory studies and enabled the mapping of the boundaries of continents and the oceans. But aircraft coverage was limited and it was not until the satellite era that full c- erage of the Earth’s surface became available. Many of the early satellites were research satellites and that meant in part the development of engineering measurement systems with no definite applications in mind. The Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer (ESMR) was a classic case in point. The sensor was built with the idea that it may be useful for meteorological research and especially rainfall studies over the oceans, but success in this area of study was very limited.

This book presents a global hydrographic description of the thermohaline circulation, an introduction to the theoretical aspects of this phenomenon, and observational evidence for the theory. The hydrographic description and the observational evidence are based on data sources, available via internet, mainly from the World Oceanographic Experiment (WOCE).  With the hydrographic description and observational evidence also comes an introduction to hydrographic analysis and interpretation.

Whitecapping is a strongly nonlinear process, which involves instability of the surface waves with space and time scales several orders of magnitude smaller than those associated with gravity wave motion.

What is “rotating hydraulics” and why would anyone wish to read a book on the subject? Over the past three decades, the term has come to describe the physics of overflows and other choked flows of the ocean and atmosphere that are broad enough to be influenced by Earth’s rotation. The currents and winds in question typically have high speeds, subcritical-to-supercritical transitions, shocks, and other objects familiar to open-channel or aeronautical engineers. Bores, int- sions, steepening waveforms and separation phenomena are considered part of the subject because they tend to arise within these flows. Mixing with neighboring fluid often occurs as the result of wave breaking or of instabilities associated with the high velocities. Interest in the field is often excited by the dramatic and strongly nonlinear character of the features in question and by the mixing and its downstream consequences. The subject is also important for the study of the Earth’s climate because of the special opportunities for observation and long term monitoring made possible as a result of the choking effect. This book is concerned primarily with the theory of rotating hydraulics. However, the Introduction contains an overview of the observations that have motivated much of the theoretical development, and more detailed case studies appear later in the book. Though both the atmosphere and the ocean are covered, the latter is the source of the most numerous examples.

Investigations of atmospheric pollution have recently reached a new stage. In addition to the estimation and the monitoring of pollutant concentrations in the air around their sources, by way of observational data and also by calcu­ lations on the basis of theoretical research, it is now possible to make short­ term forecasts of air pollution and to use them to regulate industrial emissions. Many countries are interested in such forecasts. In the Soviet Union the organizations of the State Committee of the USSR for Hydrometeorology (Goskomgidromet) are carrying out a wide-scale scientific programme on the devising of methods to forecast atmospheric pollution. Prognostic groups are organized in territorial hydrometeocenters; in essence a new forecasting service has been established. Nowadays, in more than 200 towns of the USSR predictions are made and transmitted to large enterprises for the purpose of taking the necessary steps to preserve air qua­ lity. To ensure an operative working of this service, Methodological Instruc­ (1979) have been issued, as well as other instructions and guides. Wide­ tions scale verifications of proposed calculating methods have been made. Prob­ lems of forecasting and regulating air pollution have become evident lately in other countries as well. Much attention to these problems is payed by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). They have been widely dis­ cussed in a number of international conferences and meetings for modelling and investigating pollutant distribution in the atmosphere. The number of publications on this subject is rapidly increasing.

The editors intend that this book conveys the remarkable variety and fundamental importance of the late Helmut E. Landsberg's many contributions to the science of climatology and its practice over a very productive 55-year career. We thank the distinguished authors for their contributions. We also thank Corinne Preston and Charlene Mann for their invaluable word-processing assistance and preparation of camera-ready copy. Finally, we thank Joshua Holland for permission to reproduce his portrait of Landsberg, and Jeanne Moody for preparation of the index. F. Baer N. L. Canfield J. M. Mitchell Editors vii CONTRmUTORS Ferdinand Baer, Department of Meteorology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA Norman L. Canfield, Department of Meteorology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA Dennis M. Driscoll, Department of Meteorology, Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas, USA William H. Haggard, Climatological Consulting Corporation, Asheville, North Carolina, USA David M. Ludlum, Founding Editor, Weatherwise, Princeton, New Jersey, USA Thomas F. Malone, St. Joseph College, West Hartford, Connecticut, USA J. Murray Mitchell, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (retired), McLean, Virginia, USA Timothy R. Oke, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Joseph Smagorinsky, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (retired), Princeton, New Jersey, USA Hessam Taba, World Meteorological Organization (retired), Geneva, Switzerland Morley Thomas, Atmospheric Environment Service (retired), Downsview, Ontario, Canada. IX OVERVIEW Ferdinand Baer Helmut E.

The first edition of my book "Climate and Circulation of the Tropics" was reasonably up to date to the middle of 1985. In a second printing in 1988 it was possible to complete a few literature references and to correct some misprints. However, vigorous research has taken place over the past five years in various areas of tropical climate dynamics, especially in the atmosphere-ocean mechanisms of climate anomalies, climate prediction, ocean circulation, and paleoclimates. Promising progress has also been made in the application of general circulation modelling to tropical climate problems. In the present second edition, named "Climate Dynamics of the Tropics", I have attempted to incorporate much of the recent work to late 1990. Chapters 8 and 9 have been essentially re-written, and major additions have been made to Chapters 4 and 12 in particular. I would like to acknowledge the continued support by the U.S. National Science Foundation over the past five years. B. Parthasarathy, Poona, and H. Lessmann, San Salvador, sent me updates of data series not easily accessible. I have benefitted from discussions with numerous colleagues in the United States and overseas. In the preparation of this second edition, Marilyn Wolff patiently transferred my illegible hand-written drafts onto word processor. Dierk Polzin and Dan Skemp assisted me with the creation of the page masters and the subject index and Christopher Collimore with the author index.

The first edition of my book "Climate and Circulation of the Tropics" was reasonably up to date to the middle of 1985. In a second printing in 1988 it was possible to complete a few literature references and to correct some misprints. However, vigorous research has taken place over the past five years in various areas of tropical climate dynamics, especially in the atmosphere-ocean mechanisms of climate anomalies, climate prediction, ocean circulation, and paleoclimates. Promising progress has also been made in the application of general circulation modelling to tropical climate problems. In the present second edition, named "Climate Dynamics of the Tropics", I have attempted to incorporate much of the recent work to late 1990. Chapters 8 and 9 have been essentially re-written, and major additions have been made to Chapters 4 and 12 in particular. I would like to acknowledge the continued support by the U.S. National Science Foundation over the past five years. B. Parthasarathy, Poona, and H. Lessmann, San Salvador, sent me updates of data series not easily accessible. I have benefitted from discussions with numerous colleagues in the United States and overseas. In the preparation of this second edition, Marilyn Wolff patiently transferred my illegible hand-written drafts onto word processor. Dierk Polzin and Dan Skemp assisted me with the creation of the page masters and the subject index and Christopher Collimore with the author index.

Ding Yihui Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing, China Series: ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES LIBRARY volume: 16. The monsoon over China is one of the major components of the global circulation patterns. A remarkable relationship exists between this part of the monsoon and other world regions. However, in western countries little is yet known about monsoons over China. This monograph provides a systematic and comprehensive description of the major aspects of monsoons over China. Special emphasis is put on fluctuations of the monsoon on various scales and the effects of the Tibetan Plateau on the monsoon. The book also contains useful historical information.; For researchers in meteorology, hydrology, oceanography. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht December 1993 432 pp. Hardbound Dfl.295.00 BrP.118.00.

This examination of the microphysical processes which lead to cloud and precipitation formation emphasizes a quantitative description of the various mechanisms (e.g. nucleation, diffusional growth and evaporation, collisional growth and breakup) which lead to the formation of cloud and precipitation particles, individually and in populations. This edition has been updated to incorporate new research reported in a large number of articles and dozens of books and conference proceedings published since the first edition. Some highlights include: a new chapter on cloud chemistry; improved statistical mechanics models for homogeneous and heterogeneous ice nucleation; better data on aerosol size distribution and on fundamental properties of water; new data and models for asymmetric flow past particles of various shapes and for drop oscillation and breakup; extended treatment of drop coalescence and particle collision cross-sections, including some new effects of turbulence; more complete simulations of stochastic growth; expanded treatment of growth modes of graupel, rime and hailstones; new field data and modelling concerning effects of electric fields and charges on cloud microphysics.

This examination of the microphysical processes which lead to cloud and precipitation formation emphasizes a quantitative description of the various mechanisms (e.g. nucleation, diffusional growth and evaporation, collisional growth and breakup) which lead to the formation of cloud and precipitation particles, individually and in populations. This edition has been updated to incorporate new research reported in a large number of articles and dozens of books and conference proceedings published since the first edition. Some highlights include: a new chapter on cloud chemistry; improved statistical mechanics models for homogeneous and heterogeneous ice nucleation; better data on aerosol size distribution and on fundamental properties of water; new data and models for asymmetric flow past particles of various shapes and for drop oscillation and breakup; extended treatment of drop coalescence and particle collision cross-sections, including some new effects of turbulence; more complete simulations of stochastic growth; expanded treatment of growth modes of graupel, rime and hailstones; new field data and modelling concerning effects of electric fields and charges on cloud microphysics.

This text gives a comprehensive and detailed discussion of statistical averaging of meteorological fields, with assessments of associated errors. Work on the subject, conducted in the former Soviet Union by the author, is available in English for the first time with this translation. Particularly important is the method of optimal averaging which is developed and examined. This work should be useful to those conducting climate monitoring or climate change studies, which often require spatial averaging to detect slight changes. Studies conducted by the author allow increased accuracy of these estimates compared to many methods commonly used, while showing the confidence that may be assigned to the estimates.

This work introduces a multi-disciplinary approach to extending our understanding of air-sea interaction, where the atmospheric boundary layer, ocean mixed layer dynamics and surface are collectively treated with their physical, chemical and biological components. The theme behind the book is `high resolution,' where the general assumptions behind scaling theories are often violated and new approaches and paradigms must be sought. Much of the research presented here is based on theoretical advances during the past decade, and emphasis is given to field results of the marine boundary layer experiments carried out during the period 1993-1996 west of California and in the seas of northern Europe. Given the nature of the subject, the material presented should be useful for boundary layer modellers, climate dynamicists, geophysicists and engineers specializing in platform design and energy, among others. This book may also serve as an advanced university text for use either in the classroom, or as a reference for the research or operational specialist.

Climate variability has major impacts in many parts of the world, including Australia. Developments in understanding of the "El Nino" southern oscillation phenomenon have introduced some skill in seasonal to inter-annual climate forecasting. Can this skill be harnessed to advantage? Or do we just continue to observe these impacts? How does a decision-maker managing an agricultural or natural ecosystem modify decisions in response to a skilful, but imprecise, seasonal climate forecast? Using Australian experience as a basis, this book focuses on these questions in pursuing means to better manage climate risks. The state of the science in climate forecasting is reviewed before considering detailed examples of applications to: farm scale agricultural decisions (such as management of cropping and grazing systems); regional and national scale agricultural decisions (such as commodity trading and government policy); and natural systems (such as water resources, pests and diseases, and natural fauna).Many of the examples highlight the participatory and inter-disciplinary approach required among decision-makers, resource systems scientists/analysts, and climate scientists to bring about the effective applications. The experiences discussed provide insights beyond the geographical and disciplinary focus of this book. The text is designed to be suitable for professionals and postgraduate students in ecology, agricultural climatology, environmental planning, and climate science.

In this book, the methodology of dynamical systems theory is applied to investigate the physics of the global ocean circulation. Topics include the dynamics of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean, the stability of the thermohaline circulation and the El Nino/Southern Oscillation phenomenon in the Tropical Pacific. On the other hand, the book also deals with the numerical methods for applying bifurcation analysis on large dimensional dynamical systems, with thousands or more degrees of freedom, which arise through discretization of ocean models. The novel approach in understanding the phenomena of climate variability is through a systematic analysis within a hierarchy of models using these techniques. In this way, an overview is obtained of the relations between the results of the different models within the hierarchy. Mechanistic description of the physics of the results is provided and, where possible, links with results of state-of-the-art models and observations are sought. The reader is expected to have a background in basic incompressible fluid dynamics and applied mathematics, although the level of the text is mixed and sometimes quite introductory.Each of the chapters is rather self-contained and many details of derivations are provided. The book is aimed at graduate students and researchers in meteorology, oceanography, and related fields who are interested in tackling fundamental problems in dynamical oceanography and climate dynamics.

This monograph creates a systematic interpretation of the theoretical and the most actual experimental aspects of the internal wave dynamics in the ocean. Firstly, it draws attention to the important physical effects from an oceanographical point of view which are presented in mathematical descriptions. Secondly, the book serves as an introduction to the range of modern ideas and the methods in the study of wave processes in dispersive media. The book is meant for specialists in physics of the ocean, oceanography, geophysics, hydroacoustics.

This text presents a comprehensive analysis of various aspects of air temperature and atmospheric precipitation variability over a period of instrumental observation in the Arctic, using data from stations, updated to the year 2000. A summary is also provided of the current stage of knowledge concerning climatic change in the Arctic, including a comprehensive review of literature, updated to 2001. The climatology of the studied elements with seasonal resolution is presented for the period 1951-1990. In contrast to the majority of publications in the field, the analysis presented here is for the "real" Arctic, the boundary of which has been delimited using a range of climatic criteria. For the first time, extreme temperatures are also included in the analysis. The book is intended for all those with a general interest in fields of meteorology, climatology, and with a knowledge of the application of statistics in these areas.

Covers the entire range of developments in the operational and research use of radar for meteorological applications, such as aviation, precipitation measurement and hydrology, tropical cyclone observation and forecasting and wind profiling. The book emphasises the operational aspects of radar meteorology. It also traces the evolution of the subject including older technologies still in use in some countries, which will help students assimilate the basic principles. A feature of the book is a detailed treatment of tropical cyclones as observed by radar, a topic of great interest in tropical countries. This work is suitable as a text or reference book for professional radar meteorologists, professional training courses for personnel of meteorological services, and for university courses in atmospheric science and meteorology.

In the ?rst edition of this book (publishedby Kluwer Academic in November 2000) the methodology of dynamical systems theory was introduced and appli- ˜ cations of this theory to the large-scale ocean circulation and El Nino were p- vided. Surprisedby the favorable reactions, I decided to make a second edition of the book which could be more easily used as a textbook for a graduate (700-level) course. The ?rst edition has undergone a substantial rewrite on three aspects: (i)thetext has been adapted at manylocations to improve clarity and readability, (ii)many recent results on thewind-driven ocean circulation, thethermohaline ˜ circulation and El Nino have been included, and (iii) a number of exercises have been added at the end of each chapter. In chapter 1, the description of what is known from observations on the global ocean circulation has been improved by including, for example, recent estimates of transport quantities. Both thechapters 2 and 3 have only slightly changed; in chapter 3, the text on homoclinic orbits has been extended as these type of phenomena have now clearly been found in the wind-driven double-gyre ocean circulation (as presented in chapter 5). In chapter 4, I have added a paragraph on the computation of isolated branches of steady states and the text on the iterative linear systems solvers has been shortened.

Micrometeorology is a branch of meteorology that is concerned with atmospheric phenomena and processes near the ground at scales of tens of meters to several kilometers. Progress in micrometeorologyismade throughexperimentalinvestigationofthesephenomenaandquantitative studyattemptingtobringordertoexperimentaldata. Studiesofsurfa- air ?ux play a crucial role in this endeavor. The current paradigm of micrometeorology builds on two premises: (i) that scale separation exists so that the microscale phenomena can be treated more or less in isolation of phenomena occurring at larger scales, and (ii) that these phenomena are in?uenced by the surface to such an extent that “external factors” can be ignored. Quantitative studies have been based on the assumption of horizontal homogeneity, which inevitably biases the investigation toward over-idealization of the real world by restricting it to perfectly ?at topography and daytime, fair weather conditions. This bias was noted by John Philip 40 years ago: “Experimenters attempt to avoid [advection] by working on sites downwind of extensive ‘homogeneous’ areas. Sometimes advection is invoked to explain otherwise inexplicable observations...” (J. Meteorol. 16, 535).

This monograph provides a unique and comprehensive coverage of the nature and atmospheric role of carbonaceous aerosol particles, these big unknowns of the global atmosphere. Even the concept of carbonaceous aerosol has just recently grown out of atmospheric pollution studies, without ever being anchored to solidified nomenclature and terminology. It is beyond any doubt that no major breakthrough can be expected in resolving climate issues without a better understanding of the role carbonaceous particles play in the global atmosphere. This monograph may serve as an indispensable reference for all those interested in virtually any aspects of global atmospheric sciences, especially for those who are stakeholders in inadvertent climate modification. Thus atmospheric chemists, physicists, meteorologists, and modellers may well find this monograph a thought-inspiring and sometimes provocative overview of all global phenomena affected by or related to carbonaceous aerosol. An anticipated advantage of this monograph is that it brings together these diverse atmospheric phenomena under the umbrella of carbonaceous aerosol in an interdisciplinary way, which is a prerequisite of resolving global scientific issues.

Since the Industrial Revolution the chemical composition of the atmosphere has changed at a rate unprecedented in recent history. Ozone depletion emerged as one of the most important environmental issues of the 20th century as evidence grew for substantial human influences on the atmospheric ozone abundances over much of the globe. The science of the ozone layer and its interactions with halogenated chemical compounds are the primary subjects of this book.The volume provides a comprehensive view of the chemical, dynamical, and radiative processes that affect ozone and other chemicals in the stratosphere and mesosphere. Over recent decades our understanding of these processes has increased dramatically. The discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole has shown that human activities can lead to major changes in our environment.From a review of a previous edition -"[…] an interesting and well-written overview of the current status of our knowledge of the composition of the middle atmosphere and the basic radiative, dynamical and photochemical processes which maintain it." (Bulletin American Meteorological Society)

Clouds affect the climate of the Earth, and they are an important factor in the weather. Therefore, their radiative properties must be understood in great detail. This book summarizes current knowledge on cloud optical properties, for example their ability to absorb, transmit, and reflect light, which depends on the clouds’ geometrical and microphysical characteristics such as sizes of droplets and crystals, their shapes, and structures. In addition, problems related to the image transfer through clouds and cloud remote sensing are addressed in this book in great detail.This book can be an important source of information on theoretical cloud optics for cloud physicists, meteorologists and optical engineers. All basic ideas of optics as related to scattering of light in clouds (e.g. Mie theory and radiative transfer) are considered in a self consistent way. Consequently, the book can also be a useful textbook to newcomers to the field.

Wind erosion occurs in many arid, semiarid and agricultural areas of the world. It is an environmental process in?uenced by geological and climatic variations as well as human activities. In general, wind erosion leads to land degradation in agricultural areas and has a negative impact on air quality. Dustemissiongeneratedbywinderosionisthelargestsourceofaerosolswhich directly or indirectly in?uence the atmospheric radiation balance and hence global climatic variations. Strong wind-erosion events, such as severe dust storms, may threaten human lives and cause substantial economic damage. The physics of wind erosion is complex, as it involves atmospheric, soil and land-surface processes. The research on wind erosion is multidisciplinary, covering meteorology, ?uid dynamics, soil physics, colloidal science, surface soil hydrology, ecology, etc. Several excellent books have already been written about the topic, for instance, by Bagnold (1941, The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes), Greeley and Iversen (1985, Wind as a Geological P- cess on Earth, Mars, Venus and Titan), Pye (1987, Aeolian Dust and Dust Deposits), Pye and Tsoar (1990, Aeolian Sand and Sand Dunes). However, considerable progress has been made in wind-erosion research in recent years and there is a need to systematically document this progress in a new book.

This introductory book on numerical weather prediction focuses on the spectral transform method, which is an important component for global weather forecasts at numerous operational centers. Therefore, it is an indispensable guide to the methods being used by nearly all major weather forecast centers in the United States, England, Japan, India, France, and Australia. The objectives of this book are to provide a systematic and sequential background for students, researchers, and operational weather forecasters in order to develop comprehensive weather forecast models. The chapter exercises allow it to be used as a graduate textbook for courses in meteorology as well.

This book provides a detailed description of light absorption and absorbents in seawaters with respect to provenance, region of the sea, depth of the occurrence and trophicity. The text is based on a substantial body of contemporary research results taken from the subject literature (over 400 references) and the work of the authors over a period of 30 years.

This book presents a global hydrographic description of the thermohaline circulation, an introduction to the theoretical aspects of this phenomenon, and observational evidence for the theory. The hydrographic description and the observational evidence are based on data sources, available via internet, mainly from the World Oceanographic Experiment (WOCE).  With the hydrographic description and observational evidence also comes an introduction to hydrographic analysis and interpretation.