Atmospheric and Oceanographic Sciences Library – serie

This is an introductory textbook on global spectral modeling designed for senior-level undergraduates and possibly for first-year graduate students. This text starts with an introduction to elementary finite-difference methods and moves on towards the gradual description of sophisticated dynamical and physical models in spherical coordinates. Computational aspects of the spectral transform method, the planetary boundary layer physics, the physics of precipitation processes in large-scale models, the radiative transfer including effects of diagnostic clouds and diurnal cycle, the surface energy balance over land and ocean, and the treatment of mountains are some issues that are addressed. The topic of model initialization includes the treatment of normal modes and physical processes. A concluding chapter covers the spectral energetics as a diagnostic tool for model evaluation. This revised second edition of the text also includes three additional chapters. Chapter 11 deals with the formulation of a regional spectral model for mesoscale modeling which uses a double Fourier expansion of data and model equations for its transform. Chapter 12 deals with ensemble modeling. This is a new and important area for numerical weather and climate prediction. Finally, yet another new area that has to do with adaptive observational strategies is included as Chapter 13. It foretells where data deficiencies may reside in model from an exploratory ensemble run of experiments and the spread of such forecasts.

This book provides a detailed description of light absorption and absorbents in seawaters with respect to provenance, region of the sea, depth of the occurrence and trophicity. The text is based on a substantial body of contemporary research results taken from the subject literature (over 400 references) and the work of the authors over a period of 30 years.

Only a few centuries ago, we knew very little about our planet Earth. The Earth was considered flat by many although it was postulated by a few like Aristotle that it is spherical based on observations that included the study of lunar eclipses. Much later, Christopher Columbus successfully sailed to the West to discover the New World and Ferdinand Magellan’s ship circumnavigated the globe to prove once and for all that the Earth is indeed a sphere. Worldwide navigation and explorations that followed made it clear that the Earth is huge and rather impossible to study solely by foot or by water. The advent of air travel made it a lot easier to do exploratory studies and enabled the mapping of the boundaries of continents and the oceans. But aircraft coverage was limited and it was not until the satellite era that full c- erage of the Earth’s surface became available. Many of the early satellites were research satellites and that meant in part the development of engineering measurement systems with no definite applications in mind. The Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer (ESMR) was a classic case in point. The sensor was built with the idea that it may be useful for meteorological research and especially rainfall studies over the oceans, but success in this area of study was very limited.

This book presents a global hydrographic description of the thermohaline circulation, an introduction to the theoretical aspects of this phenomenon, and observational evidence for the theory. The hydrographic description and the observational evidence are based on data sources, available via internet, mainly from the World Oceanographic Experiment (WOCE).  With the hydrographic description and observational evidence also comes an introduction to hydrographic analysis and interpretation.

The atmosphere and the ocean form a coupled system which exchanges heat, momentum and water at the air–sea interface. The interface is dynamic and masses and energy are continually transferred across the air–sea interface. The energy ?ow from the atmosphere to the ocean generates an aerodynamically rough sea surface. If the energy ?ow is su?ciently intense, at some points the surface waves will lose their stability and eventually break. Breaking is a very localized and non-stationary phenomenon that is a source of vorticity and turbulence. Dissipated energy becomes available for mixing the water layers and for whitecapping of various scales. Whitecapping is a strongly nonlinear process, which involves instability of the surface waves with space and time scales several orders of magnitude smaller than those associated with gravity wave motion. Whitecaps are usually formed at or near the crests of the larger waves and occur in groups with successive crests breaking downwind of one another. Wave breaking is the dominant generator of the ‘primary’ marine aerosol (sea salt) and it is a major factor in the air–sea exchange of gases (including carbon dioxide). Most of the aerosol generated from natural waters is in the form of jet and ?lm drops from the bursting of air bubbles (Monahan and Van Patten, 1989). The enriched aerosols associated with the ejected droplets are very - portant in maintaining a source of salt-laden cloud condensation nuclei as well asinterfacial?uxesoftraceconstituents,includingbacteria,viruses,heavym- als, radioactivity and organic material (Kerman, 1986).

What is “rotating hydraulics” and why would anyone wish to read a book on the subject? Over the past three decades, the term has come to describe the physics of overflows and other choked flows of the ocean and atmosphere that are broad enough to be influenced by Earth’s rotation. The currents and winds in question typically have high speeds, subcritical-to-supercritical transitions, shocks, and other objects familiar to open-channel or aeronautical engineers. Bores, int- sions, steepening waveforms and separation phenomena are considered part of the subject because they tend to arise within these flows. Mixing with neighboring fluid often occurs as the result of wave breaking or of instabilities associated with the high velocities. Interest in the field is often excited by the dramatic and strongly nonlinear character of the features in question and by the mixing and its downstream consequences. The subject is also important for the study of the Earth’s climate because of the special opportunities for observation and long term monitoring made possible as a result of the choking effect. This book is concerned primarily with the theory of rotating hydraulics. However, the Introduction contains an overview of the observations that have motivated much of the theoretical development, and more detailed case studies appear later in the book. Though both the atmosphere and the ocean are covered, the latter is the source of the most numerous examples.

Investigations of atmospheric pollution have recently reached a new stage. In addition to the estimation and the monitoring of pollutant concentrations in the air around their sources, by way of observational data and also by calcu­ lations on the basis of theoretical research, it is now possible to make short­ term forecasts of air pollution and to use them to regulate industrial emissions. Many countries are interested in such forecasts. In the Soviet Union the organizations of the State Committee of the USSR for Hydrometeorology (Goskomgidromet) are carrying out a wide-scale scientific programme on the devising of methods to forecast atmospheric pollution. Prognostic groups are organized in territorial hydrometeocenters; in essence a new forecasting service has been established. Nowadays, in more than 200 towns of the USSR predictions are made and transmitted to large enterprises for the purpose of taking the necessary steps to preserve air qua­ lity. To ensure an operative working of this service, Methodological Instruc­ (1979) have been issued, as well as other instructions and guides. Wide­ tions scale verifications of proposed calculating methods have been made. Prob­ lems of forecasting and regulating air pollution have become evident lately in other countries as well. Much attention to these problems is payed by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). They have been widely dis­ cussed in a number of international conferences and meetings for modelling and investigating pollutant distribution in the atmosphere. The number of publications on this subject is rapidly increasing.

The editors intend that this book conveys the remarkable variety and fundamental importance of the late Helmut E. Landsberg's many contributions to the science of climatology and its practice over a very productive 55-year career. We thank the distinguished authors for their contributions. We also thank Corinne Preston and Charlene Mann for their invaluable word-processing assistance and preparation of camera-ready copy. Finally, we thank Joshua Holland for permission to reproduce his portrait of Landsberg, and Jeanne Moody for preparation of the index. F. Baer N. L. Canfield J. M. Mitchell Editors vii CONTRmUTORS Ferdinand Baer, Department of Meteorology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA Norman L. Canfield, Department of Meteorology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA Dennis M. Driscoll, Department of Meteorology, Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas, USA William H. Haggard, Climatological Consulting Corporation, Asheville, North Carolina, USA David M. Ludlum, Founding Editor, Weatherwise, Princeton, New Jersey, USA Thomas F. Malone, St. Joseph College, West Hartford, Connecticut, USA J. Murray Mitchell, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (retired), McLean, Virginia, USA Timothy R. Oke, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Joseph Smagorinsky, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (retired), Princeton, New Jersey, USA Hessam Taba, World Meteorological Organization (retired), Geneva, Switzerland Morley Thomas, Atmospheric Environment Service (retired), Downsview, Ontario, Canada. IX OVERVIEW Ferdinand Baer Helmut E.

The first edition of my book "Climate and Circulation of the Tropics" was reasonably up to date to the middle of 1985. In a second printing in 1988 it was possible to complete a few literature references and to correct some misprints. However, vigorous research has taken place over the past five years in various areas of tropical climate dynamics, especially in the atmosphere-ocean mechanisms of climate anomalies, climate prediction, ocean circulation, and paleoclimates. Promising progress has also been made in the application of general circulation modelling to tropical climate problems. In the present second edition, named "Climate Dynamics of the Tropics", I have attempted to incorporate much of the recent work to late 1990. Chapters 8 and 9 have been essentially re-written, and major additions have been made to Chapters 4 and 12 in particular. I would like to acknowledge the continued support by the U.S. National Science Foundation over the past five years. B. Parthasarathy, Poona, and H. Lessmann, San Salvador, sent me updates of data series not easily accessible. I have benefitted from discussions with numerous colleagues in the United States and overseas. In the preparation of this second edition, Marilyn Wolff patiently transferred my illegible hand-written drafts onto word processor. Dierk Polzin and Dan Skemp assisted me with the creation of the page masters and the subject index and Christopher Collimore with the author index.

The first edition of my book "Climate and Circulation of the Tropics" was reasonably up to date to the middle of 1985. In a second printing in 1988 it was possible to complete a few literature references and to correct some misprints. However, vigorous research has taken place over the past five years in various areas of tropical climate dynamics, especially in the atmosphere-ocean mechanisms of climate anomalies, climate prediction, ocean circulation, and paleoclimates. Promising progress has also been made in the application of general circulation modelling to tropical climate problems. In the present second edition, named "Climate Dynamics of the Tropics", I have attempted to incorporate much of the recent work to late 1990. Chapters 8 and 9 have been essentially re-written, and major additions have been made to Chapters 4 and 12 in particular. I would like to acknowledge the continued support by the U.S. National Science Foundation over the past five years. B. Parthasarathy, Poona, and H. Lessmann, San Salvador, sent me updates of data series not easily accessible. I have benefitted from discussions with numerous colleagues in the United States and overseas. In the preparation of this second edition, Marilyn Wolff patiently transferred my illegible hand-written drafts onto word processor. Dierk Polzin and Dan Skemp assisted me with the creation of the page masters and the subject index and Christopher Collimore with the author index.

The monsoon over China is one of the major components of the general circulation on a global basis. Its activity be ars a significant regional implication in East Asia and Southeast Asia. Recently, the remarkable relationship and teleconnection between this part of the monsoon and other regions over the world have been revealed. However, little of the overall picture of monsoons over China is known by meteorologists in English-speaking countries. This monograph provides the first opportunity to extensively introduce this subject and give a comprehensive and systematic description of the major aspects of monsoons over China, with a special emphasis on the fluctuations of the monsoon on various scales and the effects of the Tibetan Plateau on the monsoon. Much highly original material and achievements Chinese and Western meteorologists have made from the past 20 years have been incorporated with a unifying approach. In each chapter, the observational and theoretical (including modelling) treatment will be closely combined in order to fully illustrate the relevent problems. The unique thermal and dynamical effects of the Tibetan Plateau on the monsoon circulation features wh ich are one of the central problems of the Asian monsoon are highlights of this monograph. Researchers in meteorology and weather forecasters should find this book a very useful introduction to monsoons over China, not only for its systematic treatment of the subject, but also because of its considerable historical information. This mono graph is equally suitable for graduates or more advanced students in meteorology, hydrology, and oceanography.

Cloud physics has achieved such a voluminous literature over the past few decades that a significant quantitative study of the entire field would prove unwieldy. This book concentrates on one major aspect: cloud microphysics, which involves the processes that lead to the formation of individual cloud and precipitation particles. Common practice has shown that one may distinguish among the following addi­ tional major aspects: cloud dynamics, which is concerned with the physics respon­ sible for the macroscopic features of clouds; cloud electricity, which deals with the electrical structure of clouds and the electrification processes of cloud and precipi­ tation particles; and cloud optics and radar meteorology, which describe the effects of electromagnetic waves interacting with clouds and precipitation. Another field intimately related to cloud physics is atmospheric chemistry, which involves the chemical composition ofthe atmosphere and the life cycle and characteristics of its gaseous and particulate constituents. In view of the natural interdependence of the various aspects of cloud physics, the subject of microphysics cannot be discussed very meaningfully out of context. Therefore, we have found it necessary to touch briefly upon a few simple and basic concepts of cloud dynamics and thermodynamics, and to provide an account of the major characteristics of atmospheric aerosol particles. We have also included a separate chapter on some of the effects of electric fields and charges on the precipitation-forming processes.

Cloud physics has achieved such a voluminous literature over the past few decades that a significant quantitative study of the entire field would prove unwieldy. This book concentrates on one major aspect: cloud microphysics, which involves the processes that lead to the formation of individual cloud and precipitation particles. Common practice has shown that one may distinguish among the following addi­ tional major aspects: cloud dynamics, which is concerned with the physics respon­ sible for the macroscopic features of clouds; cloud electricity, which deals with the electrical structure of clouds and the electrification processes of cloud and precipi­ tation particles; and cloud optics and radar meteorology, which describe the effects of electromagnetic waves interacting with clouds and precipitation. Another field intimately related to cloud physics is atmospheric chemistry, which involves the chemical composition ofthe atmosphere and the life cycle and characteristics of its gaseous and particulate constituents. In view of the natural interdependence of the various aspects of cloud physics, the subject of microphysics cannot be discussed very meaningfully out of context. Therefore, we have found it necessary to touch briefly upon a few simple and basic concepts of cloud dynamics and thermodynamics, and to provide an account of the major characteristics of atmospheric aerosol particles. We have also included a separate chapter on some of the effects of electric fields and charges on the precipitation-forming processes.

Spatial and temporal averaging of observational data is widely used in many problems of meteorology, hydrology and related sciences. Several averaging methods have been proposed by various scientists and are used on a regular basis to obtain data averaged in space orfand in time, to yield data which are less influenced by random factors than initial point data are. The significance of averaging meteorological fields has substantially increased nowadays in connection with the problem of global climate change. However important as such change may be, it is very small as compared with the natural variability of atmospheric fields. An accurate averaging is absolutely necessary in order to discover a small climate change signal on the background of strong natural variability that acts as a random noise in this context. It is highly desirable not only to determine the averaged values themselves, but also to estimate the accuracy with which these values are known. To evaluate the accuracy of averaging is not a simple task mainly because the initial point values are not independent from each other, and interconnections between them substantially influence the averaging accuracy.

During the 1980's a wealth of information was reported from field and laboratory experiments in order to validate andlor modify various aspects of the surface layer Monin-Obukhov (M-O) similarity theory for use over the sea, and to introduce and test new concepts related to high resolution flux magnitudes and variabilities. For example, data from various field experiments conducted on the North Sea, Lake Ontario, and the Atlantic experiments, among others, yielded information on the dependence of the flux coefficients on wave state. In all field projects, the usual criteria for satisfying M-O similarity were applied. The assumptions of stationarity and homogeneity was assumed to be relevant over both small and large scales. In addition, the properties of the outer layer were assumed to be "correlated" with properties of the surface layer. These assumptions generally required that data were averaged for spatial footprints representing scales greater than 25 km (or typically 30 minutes or longer for typical windspeeds). While more and more data became available over the years, and the technology applied was more reliable, robust, and durable, the flux coefficients and other turbulent parameters still exhibited significant unexplained scatter. Since the scatter did not show sufficient reduction over the years to meet customer needs, in spite of improved technology and heavy financial investments, one could only conclude that perhaps the use of similarity theory contained too many simplifications when applied to environments which were more complicated than previously thought.

Climate variability has major impacts in many parts of the world, including Australia. Developments in understanding of the El Niño - Southern Oscillation Phenomenon have introduced some skill in seasonal to inter-annual climate forecasting. Can this skill be harnessed to advantage? Or do we just continue to observe these impacts? How does a decision-maker managing an agricultural or natural ecosystem modify decisions in response to a skillful, but imprecise, seasonal climate forecast? Using Australian experience as a basis, this book focuses on these questions in pursuing means to better manage climate risks. The state of the science in climate forecasting is reviewed before considering detailed examples of applications to: farm scale agricultural decisions (such as management of cropping and grazing systems); regional and national scale agricultural decisions (such as commodity trading and government policy); and natural systems (such as water resources, pests and diseases, and natural fauna). Many of the examples highlight the participatory and inter-disciplinary approach required among decision-makers, resource systems scientists/analysts, and climate scientists to bring about the effective applications. The experiences discussed provide valuable insights beyond the geographical and disciplinary focus of this book. The book is ideally suited to professionals and postgraduate students in ecology, agricultural climatology, environmental planning, and climate science.

In this book, the methodology of dynamical systems theory is applied to investigate the physics of the global ocean circulation. Topics include the dynamics of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean, the stability of the thermohaline circulation and the El Niño/Southern Oscillation phenomenon in the Tropical Pacific. On the other hand, the book also deals with the numerical methods for applying bifurcation analysis on large dimensional dynamical systems, with thousands or more degrees of freedom, which arise through discretization of ocean models. The novel approach in understanding the phenomena of climate variability is through a systematic analysis within a hierarchy of models using these techniques. In this way, a nice overview is obtained of the relations between the results of the different models within the hierarchy. Mechanistic description of the physics of the results is provided and, where possible, links with results of state-of-the-art models and observations are sought. The reader is expected to have a background in basic incompressible fluid dynamics and applied mathematics, although the level of the text is mixed and sometimes quite introductory. Each chapter is rather self-contained and many details of derivations are provided. The book is aimed at graduate students and researchers in meteorology, oceanography, and related fields who are interested in tackling fundamental problems in dynamical oceanography and climate dynamics.

This monograph creates a systematic interpretation of the theoretical and the most actual experimental aspects of the internal wave dynamics in the ocean. Firstly, it draws attention to the important physical effects from an oceanographical point of view which are presented in mathematical descriptions. Secondly, the book serves as an introduction to the range of modern ideas and the methods in the study of wave processes in dispersive media.The book is meant for specialists in physics of the ocean, oceanography, geophysics, hydroacoustics.

This text presents a comprehensive analysis of various aspects of air temperature and atmospheric precipitation variability over a period of instrumental observation in the Arctic, using data from stations, updated to the year 2000. A summary is also provided of the current stage of knowledge concerning climatic change in the Arctic, including a comprehensive review of literature, updated to 2001. The climatology of the studied elements with seasonal resolution is presented for the period 1951-1990. In contrast to the majority of publications in the field, the analysis presented here is for the "real" Arctic, the boundary of which has been delimited using a range of climatic criteria. For the first time, extreme temperatures are also included in the analysis. The book is intended for all those with a general interest in fields of meteorology, climatology, and with a knowledge of the application of statistics in these areas.

As we all know, weather radar came into existence during the Second World War when aircraft detection radars had their vision limited by echoes from rain bearing clouds. What was often considered to be of nuisance value by the air force personnel trying to locate enemy aircraft was seen as an opportunity by the weather men. Thus adversity in one field was converted into an opportunity in another. Since then weather radar has found myriad applications with the increased sophistication of technology and processing systems. It has now become an indispensable tool for the operational forecasters, cloud physicists and atmospheric scientists. The current generation radar is but a distant echo of the radars of the 1940s. As a result, its operation and maintenance have become very complex, like the technology it uses. Therefore, there is a definite requirement of focussing our special attention not only on the science of radar meteorology but also on its operational aspects. The present book,as pointed out by the author, attempts to fill this gap. The author has presented the subject with a balanced blend of science, technology and practice. The canvas is indeed very broad. Starting with the history of weather radar development the book goes on to discuss in a lucid style the physics of the atmosphere related to radar observation, radar technology, echo interpretation, different applications and finally attempts to look into the future to indicate potential new opportunities in this field.

In the ?rst edition of this book (publishedby Kluwer Academic in November 2000) the methodology of dynamical systems theory was introduced and appli- ˜ cations of this theory to the large-scale ocean circulation and El Nino were p- vided. Surprisedby the favorable reactions, I decided to make a second edition of the book which could be more easily used as a textbook for a graduate (700-level) course. The ?rst edition has undergone a substantial rewrite on three aspects: (i)thetext has been adapted at manylocations to improve clarity and readability, (ii)many recent results on thewind-driven ocean circulation, thethermohaline ˜ circulation and El Nino have been included, and (iii) a number of exercises have been added at the end of each chapter. In chapter 1, the description of what is known from observations on the global ocean circulation has been improved by including, for example, recent estimates of transport quantities. Both thechapters 2 and 3 have only slightly changed; in chapter 3, the text on homoclinic orbits has been extended as these type of phenomena have now clearly been found in the wind-driven double-gyre ocean circulation (as presented in chapter 5). In chapter 4, I have added a paragraph on the computation of isolated branches of steady states and the text on the iterative linear systems solvers has been shortened.

Micrometeorology is a branch of meteorology that is concerned with atmospheric phenomena and processes near the ground at scales of tens of meters to several kilometers. Progress in micrometeorologyismade throughexperimentalinvestigationofthesephenomenaandquantitative studyattemptingtobringordertoexperimentaldata. Studiesofsurfa- air ?ux play a crucial role in this endeavor. The current paradigm of micrometeorology builds on two premises: (i) that scale separation exists so that the microscale phenomena can be treated more or less in isolation of phenomena occurring at larger scales, and (ii) that these phenomena are in?uenced by the surface to such an extent that “external factors” can be ignored. Quantitative studies have been based on the assumption of horizontal homogeneity, which inevitably biases the investigation toward over-idealization of the real world by restricting it to perfectly ?at topography and daytime, fair weather conditions. This bias was noted by John Philip 40 years ago: “Experimenters attempt to avoid [advection] by working on sites downwind of extensive ‘homogeneous’ areas. Sometimes advection is invoked to explain otherwise inexplicable observations...” (J. Meteorol. 16, 535).

This monograph provides a unique and comprehensive coverage of the nature and atmospheric role of carbonaceous aerosol particles, these big unknowns of the global atmosphere. Even the concept of carbonaceous aerosol has just recently grown out of atmospheric pollution studies, without ever being anchored to solidified nomenclature and terminology. It is beyond any doubt that no major breakthrough can be expected in resolving climate issues without a better understanding of the role carbonaceous particles play in the global atmosphere. This monograph may serve as an indispensable reference for all those interested in virtually any aspects of global atmospheric sciences, especially for those who are stakeholders in inadvertent climate modification. Thus atmospheric chemists, physicists, meteorologists, and modellers may well find this monograph a thought-inspiring and sometimes provocative overview of all global phenomena affected by or related to carbonaceous aerosol. An anticipated advantage of this monograph is that it brings together these diverse atmospheric phenomena under the umbrella of carbonaceous aerosol in an interdisciplinary way, which is a prerequisite of resolving global scientific issues.

Since the Industrial Revolution the chemical composition of the atmosphere has changed at a rate unprecedented in recent history. Ozone depletion emerged as one of the most important environmental issues of the 20th century as evidence grew for substantial human influences on the atmospheric ozone abundances over much of the globe. The science of the ozone layer and its interactions with halogenated chemical compounds are the primary subjects of this book.The volume provides a comprehensive view of the chemical, dynamical, and radiative processes that affect ozone and other chemicals in the stratosphere and mesosphere. Over recent decades our understanding of these processes has increased dramatically. The discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole has shown that human activities can lead to major changes in our environment.From a review of a previous edition -"[…] an interesting and well-written overview of the current status of our knowledge of the composition of the middle atmosphere and the basic radiative, dynamical and photochemical processes which maintain it." (Bulletin American Meteorological Society)

Clouds affect the climate of the Earth, and they are an important factor in the weather. Therefore, their radiative properties must be understood in great detail. This book summarizes current knowledge on cloud optical properties, for example their ability to absorb, transmit, and reflect light, which depends on the clouds’ geometrical and microphysical characteristics such as sizes of droplets and crystals, their shapes, and structures. In addition, problems related to the image transfer through clouds and cloud remote sensing are addressed in this book in great detail.This book can be an important source of information on theoretical cloud optics for cloud physicists, meteorologists and optical engineers. All basic ideas of optics as related to scattering of light in clouds (e.g. Mie theory and radiative transfer) are considered in a self consistent way. Consequently, the book can also be a useful textbook to newcomers to the field.

Wind erosion occurs in many arid, semiarid and agricultural areas of the world. It is an environmental process in?uenced by geological and climatic variations as well as human activities. In general, wind erosion leads to land degradation in agricultural areas and has a negative impact on air quality. Dustemissiongeneratedbywinderosionisthelargestsourceofaerosolswhich directly or indirectly in?uence the atmospheric radiation balance and hence global climatic variations. Strong wind-erosion events, such as severe dust storms, may threaten human lives and cause substantial economic damage. The physics of wind erosion is complex, as it involves atmospheric, soil and land-surface processes. The research on wind erosion is multidisciplinary, covering meteorology, ?uid dynamics, soil physics, colloidal science, surface soil hydrology, ecology, etc. Several excellent books have already been written about the topic, for instance, by Bagnold (1941, The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes), Greeley and Iversen (1985, Wind as a Geological P- cess on Earth, Mars, Venus and Titan), Pye (1987, Aeolian Dust and Dust Deposits), Pye and Tsoar (1990, Aeolian Sand and Sand Dunes). However, considerable progress has been made in wind-erosion research in recent years and there is a need to systematically document this progress in a new book.

This is an introductory textbook on global spectral modeling designed for senior-level undergraduates and possibly for first-year graduate students. This text starts with an introduction to elementary finite-difference methods and moves on towards the gradual description of sophisticated dynamical and physical models in spherical coordinates. Computational aspects of the spectral transform method, the planetary boundary layer physics, the physics of precipitation processes in large-scale models, the radiative transfer including effects of diagnostic clouds and diurnal cycle, the surface energy balance over land and ocean, and the treatment of mountains are some issues that are addressed. The topic of model initialization includes the treatment of normal modes and physical processes. A concluding chapter covers the spectral energetics as a diagnostic tool for model evaluation. This revised second edition of the text also includes three additional chapters. Chapter 11 deals with the formulation of a regional spectral model for mesoscale modeling which uses a double Fourier expansion of data and model equations for its transform. Chapter 12 deals with ensemble modeling. This is a new and important area for numerical weather and climate prediction. Finally, yet another new area that has to do with adaptive observational strategies is included as Chapter 13. It foretells where data deficiencies may reside in model from an exploratory ensemble run of experiments and the spread of such forecasts.

This book provides a detailed description of light absorption and absorbents in seawaters with respect to provenance, region of the sea, depth of the occurrence and trophicity. The text is based on a substantial body of contemporary research results taken from the subject literature (over 400 references) and the work of the authors over a period of 30 years.

This book presents a global hydrographic description of the thermohaline circulation, an introduction to the theoretical aspects of this phenomenon, and observational evidence for the theory. The hydrographic description and the observational evidence are based on data sources, available via internet, mainly from the World Oceanographic Experiment (WOCE).  With the hydrographic description and observational evidence also comes an introduction to hydrographic analysis and interpretation.