Elements in Global Philosophy of Religion – serie

An increasingly large part of the population in the West identifies as religious Nones. Contrary to what might be assumed, most of them are not outright atheists. They reject traditional religion, but many pursue different forms of spirituality, and many entertain supernatural ideas. This Element concerns the worldview of these 'semi-secular' Nones. When asked about whether they believe in God, they usually provide answers like 'Perhaps not God per se, but I do believe in something'. Belief in 'somethin' is the ontological cornerstone of many Nones' worldviews. The authors reconstruct it as the view 'Somethingism'. They assess Somethingism by inquiring how well it stands up to the epistemic challenge of being true to the demands of reason. They also assess it by exploring how it manages the existential challenge of providing comfort and guidance in this life, and its ability to align us with any transcendent reality there might be. This title is also available as open access on Cambridge Core.

An increasingly large part of the population in the West identifies as religious Nones. Contrary to what might be assumed, most of them are not outright atheists. They reject traditional religion, but many pursue different forms of spirituality, and many entertain supernatural ideas. This Element concerns the worldview of these 'semi-secular' Nones. When asked about whether they believe in God, they usually provide answers like 'Perhaps not God per se, but I do believe in something'. Belief in 'somethin' is the ontological cornerstone of many Nones' worldviews. The authors reconstruct it as the view 'Somethingism'. They assess Somethingism by inquiring how well it stands up to the epistemic challenge of being true to the demands of reason. They also assess it by exploring how it manages the existential challenge of providing comfort and guidance in this life, and its ability to align us with any transcendent reality there might be. This title is also available as open access on Cambridge Core.

Like many other world religious and spiritual traditions, the Sikh tradition is philosophically rich. However, its contributions have been wholly unrepresented in Western analytic philosophy. The goal of this Element is to present a central aspect of Sikh philosophy, its ethics, by using the tools and methods of analytic philosophy to reconstruct it in a form that is understandable to Western audiences, while still accurately capturing its unique and autochthonous features. On the interpretation of Sikh ethics this Element presents, the Sikh ethical theory understands ethics in terms of truthful living - in particular, living in a way that is true to the fundamental Oneness of all existence. Features of the Sikh ethical theory discussed include its account of vice and virtue, its account of right conduct, and the philosophical relationship between ethical theory and practice. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.

Like many other world religious and spiritual traditions, the Sikh tradition is philosophically rich. However, its contributions have been wholly unrepresented in Western analytic philosophy. The goal of this Element is to present a central aspect of Sikh philosophy, its ethics, by using the tools and methods of analytic philosophy to reconstruct it in a form that is understandable to Western audiences, while still accurately capturing its unique and autochthonous features. On the interpretation of Sikh ethics this Element presents, the Sikh ethical theory understands ethics in terms of truthful living - in particular, living in a way that is true to the fundamental Oneness of all existence. Features of the Sikh ethical theory discussed include its account of vice and virtue, its account of right conduct, and the philosophical relationship between ethical theory and practice. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.

One of the most remarkable features of the current religious landscape in the West is the emergence of new Pagan religions. Here the author will use techniques from recent analytic philosophy of religion to try to clarify and understand the major themes in contemporary Paganisms. They will discuss Pagan concepts of nature, looking at nature as a network of animated agents. They will examine several Pagan theologies, and Pagan ways of relating to deities, such as theurgy. They will discuss Pagan practices like divination, visualization, and magic. And they will talk about Pagan ethics. Their discussions are based on extensive references to contemporary Pagan writings, from many different traditions. New Pagan religions, and new Pagan philosophies, have much to contribute to the religious future of the West, and to contemporary analytic philosophy of religion.

One of the most remarkable features of the current religious landscape in the West is the emergence of new Pagan religions. Here the author will use techniques from recent analytic philosophy of religion to try to clarify and understand the major themes in contemporary Paganisms. They will discuss Pagan concepts of nature, looking at nature as a network of animated agents. They will examine several Pagan theologies, and Pagan ways of relating to deities, such as theurgy. They will discuss Pagan practices like divination, visualization, and magic. And they will talk about Pagan ethics. Their discussions are based on extensive references to contemporary Pagan writings, from many different traditions. New Pagan religions, and new Pagan philosophies, have much to contribute to the religious future of the West, and to contemporary analytic philosophy of religion.

This Element concisely and critically explores the African limited God perspective that denies that the categories of omnipotence, omniscience, and omnibenevolence are applicable to the God of African Traditional Religion (ATR). The Element teases out the intricate conceptual nuances in the limitation thesis and interrogates the divergent stances of proponents of the limited God view, with special focus on the mood perspective of the philosophy of consolationism. Proponents of the limitation thesis may be limited God theists who accept that the limited God is a creator-deity or, at least, a world-designer, or limited God non-theists who deny the limited God personality and agency. The Element expands the frontiers of research in African philosophy of religion by showing that the limitation thesis raises the question of a limited God's moral responsibility for some of the evil in the world in his capacity as a world-creator or world-designer.

This Element concisely and critically explores the African limited God perspective that denies that the categories of omnipotence, omniscience, and omnibenevolence are applicable to the God of African Traditional Religion (ATR). The Element teases out the intricate conceptual nuances in the limitation thesis and interrogates the divergent stances of proponents of the limited God view, with special focus on the mood perspective of the philosophy of consolationism. Proponents of the limitation thesis may be limited God theists who accept that the limited God is a creator-deity or, at least, a world-designer, or limited God non-theists who deny the limited God personality and agency. The Element expands the frontiers of research in African philosophy of religion by showing that the limitation thesis raises the question of a limited God's moral responsibility for some of the evil in the world in his capacity as a world-creator or world-designer.

This Element offers a philosophical introduction to, and examination of, the traditional Islamic (Sunnī) understanding of soteriology, focusing on the doctrines of heaven and hell. It explores how traditional Sunnī conceptions of ultimate reward and punishment raise several pressing philosophical questions, including those about human purpose, human nature, and God's mercy. Although primarily philosophical, the discussion in this Element is grounded in Islamic sources and thinkers. Drawing from the Qurʾān, aḥādīth, and classical figures such as Ibn Sīnā, Al-Ghazālī, and Ibn al-Qayyim, it assesses whether traditional Sunnī portrayals of heavenly reward and eternal damnation are philosophically and theologically defensible. The Element concludes that they are not, advancing instead a virtue-oriented and universalist vision of salvation.

This Element offers a philosophical introduction to, and examination of, the traditional Islamic (Sunnī) understanding of soteriology, focusing on the doctrines of heaven and hell. It explores how traditional Sunnī conceptions of ultimate reward and punishment raise several pressing philosophical questions, including those about human purpose, human nature, and God's mercy. Although primarily philosophical, the discussion in this Element is grounded in Islamic sources and thinkers. Drawing from the Qurʾān, aḥādīth, and classical figures such as Ibn Sīnā, Al-Ghazālī, and Ibn al-Qayyim, it assesses whether traditional Sunnī portrayals of heavenly reward and eternal damnation are philosophically and theologically defensible. The Element concludes that they are not, advancing instead a virtue-oriented and universalist vision of salvation.

This Element provides an argumentative introduction to the doctrines of karma and rebirth in Hinduism. It explains how various Hindu texts, traditions, and figures have understood the philosophical nuances of karma and rebirth. It also acquaints readers with some of the most important academic debates about these doctrines. The Element's primary argumentative aim is to defend the rationality of accepting the truth of karma and rebirth through a critical examination of an array of arguments for and against these doctrines. It concludes by highlighting the relevance of karma and rebirth to contemporary philosophical debates on a variety of issues. This title is also available as open access on Cambridge Core.

This Element provides an argumentative introduction to the doctrines of karma and rebirth in Hinduism. It explains how various Hindu texts, traditions, and figures have understood the philosophical nuances of karma and rebirth. It also acquaints readers with some of the most important academic debates about these doctrines. The Element's primary argumentative aim is to defend the rationality of accepting the truth of karma and rebirth through a critical examination of an array of arguments for and against these doctrines. It concludes by highlighting the relevance of karma and rebirth to contemporary philosophical debates on a variety of issues. This title is also available as open access on Cambridge Core.

This Element examines the Japanese experience of the divine through the concept of kami, understood not as transcendent authorities but as vital presences embedded in nature, community, and the human body. Rather than presenting Shinto as a fixed religion, it traces the historical formation of kami worship and its expression in myth, ritual, and festival. These practices reveal a psychosomatic mode of religiosity in which body and spirit are interwoven through processes of concealment, gestation, and renewal. Such processes situate the experience of the divine within the generative depths of existence, so that Japanese ritual life integrates chthonic dimensions through embodied participation. Philosophically, the study moves beyond the common characterization of Shinto as pantheistic, proposing instead a panentheistic framework as a more flexible interpretive lens. In this view, corporeality becomes the experiential medium through which kami are manifested. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.

This Element examines the Japanese experience of the divine through the concept of kami, understood not as transcendent authorities but as vital presences embedded in nature, community, and the human body. Rather than presenting Shinto as a fixed religion, it traces the historical formation of kami worship and its expression in myth, ritual, and festival. These practices reveal a psychosomatic mode of religiosity in which body and spirit are interwoven through processes of concealment, gestation, and renewal. Such processes situate the experience of the divine within the generative depths of existence, so that Japanese ritual life integrates chthonic dimensions through embodied participation. Philosophically, the study moves beyond the common characterization of Shinto as pantheistic, proposing instead a panentheistic framework as a more flexible interpretive lens. In this view, corporeality becomes the experiential medium through which kami are manifested. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.

This Element introduces Afro-Brazilian religions and underscores the necessity for an expanded methodological framework to encompass these traditions in the philosophy of religion. It emphasizes the importance of incorporating overlooked sources like mythic narratives and ethnographies while acknowledging the pivotal role of material culture in cognitive processes. Furthermore, it advocates for adopting an embodiment paradigm to facilitate the development of a philosophy of religious practice. The Element illustrates this approach by examining phenomena often neglected in philosophical discussions on religion, such as sacrifice and spirit possession, and delves into the ontological commitments and implications of these practices. It also stresses the significance of employing thick descriptions and embracing interdisciplinary dialogue to cultivate a globally inclusive philosophy of religion, capable of engaging with phenomena frequently sidelined within the mainstream.

This Element introduces Afro-Brazilian religions and underscores the necessity for an expanded methodological framework to encompass these traditions in the philosophy of religion. It emphasizes the importance of incorporating overlooked sources like mythic narratives and ethnographies while acknowledging the pivotal role of material culture in cognitive processes. Furthermore, it advocates for adopting an embodiment paradigm to facilitate the development of a philosophy of religious practice. The Element illustrates this approach by examining phenomena often neglected in philosophical discussions on religion, such as sacrifice and spirit possession, and delves into the ontological commitments and implications of these practices. It also stresses the significance of employing thick descriptions and embracing interdisciplinary dialogue to cultivate a globally inclusive philosophy of religion, capable of engaging with phenomena frequently sidelined within the mainstream.

Is a religious naturalism possible? 'Scientific' naturalism accommodates only 'thin' religiousness. A more robust religious naturalism posits an ultimate reality that supports the ideals of eco-morality and the hope that human fulfilment may be achieved by following those ideals. Such an account may yet be 'expansively' naturalist in taking the natural world to be the only (concrete) reality, and in not going against, only beyond, well-confirmed science. For the core content of an expansive religious naturalism, this Element proposes the idea of an inherent integrative cosmic purpose. The authors reflect both on Indigenous worldviews and on theist traditions in pursuing this proposal. This title is also available as open access on Cambridge Core.

Is a religious naturalism possible? 'Scientific' naturalism accommodates only 'thin' religiousness. A more robust religious naturalism posits an ultimate reality that supports the ideals of eco-morality and the hope that human fulfilment may be achieved by following those ideals. Such an account may yet be 'expansively' naturalist in taking the natural world to be the only (concrete) reality, and in not going against, only beyond, well-confirmed science. For the core content of an expansive religious naturalism, this Element proposes the idea of an inherent integrative cosmic purpose. The authors reflect both on Indigenous worldviews and on theist traditions in pursuing this proposal. This title is also available as open access on Cambridge Core.

Since the early works of scholars like Alexis Kagame and Placide Tempels, discussions on the concept of vitality in African philosophy have acquired many dimensions. With scholars like Noah Dzobo and Thaddeus Metz projecting it as a grounding for human values and dignity, Aribiah Attoe and Yolanda Mlungwana each exploring vitalist conceptions of meaning in life, and Ada Agada approaching vitality from a proto-panpsychist/consolationist perspective. Indeed, vitality features as an important concept in African philosophy of religion. This Element contributes to the discourse on vitality in African philosophy of religion by providing a critical overview of some traditional interpretations of the concept from the Bantu, Yoruba, and Igbo religious/philosophical worldviews. Furthermore, it explores how the concept of vitality features in discussions of ethics, dignity, and meaning in life. Finally, the Element provides a critique of the concept based on the interventions of Innocent Asouzu, Metz, and Bernard Matolino. This title is also available as open access on Cambridge Core.

Since the early works of scholars like Alexis Kagame and Placide Tempels, discussions on the concept of vitality in African philosophy have acquired many dimensions. With scholars like Noah Dzobo and Thaddeus Metz projecting it as a grounding for human values and dignity, Aribiah Attoe and Yolanda Mlungwana each exploring vitalist conceptions of meaning in life, and Ada Agada approaching vitality from a proto-panpsychist/consolationist perspective. Indeed, vitality features as an important concept in African philosophy of religion. This Element contributes to the discourse on vitality in African philosophy of religion by providing a critical overview of some traditional interpretations of the concept from the Bantu, Yoruba, and Igbo religious/philosophical worldviews. Furthermore, it explores how the concept of vitality features in discussions of ethics, dignity, and meaning in life. Finally, the Element provides a critique of the concept based on the interventions of Innocent Asouzu, Metz, and Bernard Matolino. This title is also available as open access on Cambridge Core.

Zoroastrianism is a religion with a long history, but it has been comparatively neglected by contemporary philosophers. This Element aims to bring aspects of its long intellectual history into conversation with contemporary Anglo-American philosophy. Section 1 provides an introduction to Zoroastrianism and its history, some of the important texts, and some contemporary philosophy engaged with Zoroastrian themes. Section 2 discusses distinctive contributions Zoroastrian thought can make to the problems of evil and suffering. And Section 3 discusses a 'quasi-universalist' approach to puzzles about heaven and salvation, inspired by Zoroastrian theological texts. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.

Zoroastrianism is a religion with a long history, but it has been comparatively neglected by contemporary philosophers. This Element aims to bring aspects of its long intellectual history into conversation with contemporary Anglo-American philosophy. Section 1 provides an introduction to Zoroastrianism and its history, some of the important texts, and some contemporary philosophy engaged with Zoroastrian themes. Section 2 discusses distinctive contributions Zoroastrian thought can make to the problems of evil and suffering. And Section 3 discusses a 'quasi-universalist' approach to puzzles about heaven and salvation, inspired by Zoroastrian theological texts. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.

Scrupulosity is sometimes regarded as a form of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) which focuses especially on religious obsessions and compulsions, or more generally as an excessive form of religious or spiritual perfectionism. In this Element, drawing on my own experiences and those of people within different religious traditions, I will expand our understanding of the phenomenology of scrupulosity, including ways it is experienced differently by people within different religious traditions. Next, I will consider why there is scrupulosity, exploring psychological and theological perspectives. Finally, I will then turn to the question of whether scrupulosity can be spiritually innocent; i.e. that, in spite of scrupulosity being (I argue) a spiritual disability, a person might gain spiritual benefits as a result of having scrupulosity that they would probably not otherwise gain. Finally, I will consider the implications of my argument for clinical and pastoral contexts, and for the philosophy of religion.

Scrupulosity is sometimes regarded as a form of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) which focuses especially on religious obsessions and compulsions, or more generally as an excessive form of religious or spiritual perfectionism. In this Element, drawing on my own experiences and those of people within different religious traditions, I will expand our understanding of the phenomenology of scrupulosity, including ways it is experienced differently by people within different religious traditions. Next, I will consider why there is scrupulosity, exploring psychological and theological perspectives. Finally, I will then turn to the question of whether scrupulosity can be spiritually innocent; i.e. that, in spite of scrupulosity being (I argue) a spiritual disability, a person might gain spiritual benefits as a result of having scrupulosity that they would probably not otherwise gain. Finally, I will consider the implications of my argument for clinical and pastoral contexts, and for the philosophy of religion.

Arguably, Classical Theism endorses the following theses: (1) God exists, (2) God is metaphysically simple, (3) God is impassible, and (4) God is wholly immutable. These theses often, though not always, lead to an endorsement of the view that God is wholly ineffable. Classical Theists, then, often see themselves as apophatic theologians. Ineffability and apophatic theology are not unknown in the great Eastern religious and philosophical traditions. In this Element, the authors explore to what extent the metaphysics of Classical Theism are consistent with the metaphysics of various Eastern traditions. After surveying each tradition, the authors argue that there is not only room for consistency, but that some of the traditions surveyed are plausibly read as endorsing Classical Theism, or at least, something not far off.