NATO Science Series: IV: – serie
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161 produkter
161 produkter
Del 1 - NATO Science Series: IV:
Implementing Ecological Integrity
Restoring Regional and Global Environmental and Human Health
Inbunden, Engelska, 2000
2 159 kr
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The concept of ecological integrity is used in environmental policy but is usually left undefined, the definition proposed by the Integrity Group focuses on a nature that has been impacted by human activity as little as possible, emphasizing and protecting its self-organizing capacities for life as a product of the natural history of ecosystems. The demand is for an ethical reverence for life in all its manifestations. The representatives of Central and Eastern European countries are less wary of human intervention than their North American counterparts. They consider low input agricultural ecosystems as acceptable candidates for ecological integrity, on condition they contain some unproductive components. This study of ecological integrity is multidisciplinary, grounded in ecology, thermodynamics, ethics and complex systems approach. It covers a broad international terrain, and documents geographically wide ranging case studies. It is applied in character and does not remain at the purely conceptual level.
Häftad, Engelska, 2000
2 159 kr
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This book contains some of the papers which were presented at the NATO Science, Environmental Security, Advanced Research Workshop on "Implementing Ecological Integrity: Restoring Regional and Global Environmental and Human Health" held in Budapest from June 26 to July 1, 1999. All papers presented are summarized in the Introduction and, in some cases, shorter versions are published. A mUltidisciplinary core of American and Western European participants had met over the preceeding years to discuss the concept of ecological integrity. The term "ecological integrity" is found in environmental policy documents but, generally, is not defined. It competes with other recent terms, or environmental narratives, such as "ecosystem health" and "sustainable development" and also with older ones such as "conservation". Therefore, it is deemed important not only to sort out the definitions of these concepts but also to find out whether their practical implications differ. Moreover, it was interesting to find out whether participants from Central and Eastern European Countries (CEEC) and, more generally, from NATO partner countries would be, first, responsive to this concept and, second, would hold different views of it. This explains the broad, albeit not always consistent, range oftopics which are covered in this book. The core group learned that CEEC and other NATO partners participants were responsive to the concept but that they were less exclusive of human influence.
Inbunden, Engelska, 2001
1 115 kr
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Mathematical models are being increasingly used to estimate the concentrations of a wide range of substances in the environment for a variety of reasons, including government control and legislation, and risk and hazard estimation. Exposure assessment has to be performed for many types of substances, including pesticides, industrial chemicals, pollutants, accidental discharges, etc. The interpretation of the results of model equations should always bear in mind the purpose for which the model used was built in the first place. Further, models are always an abstraction of reality, requiring simplifying assumptions to keep the models within the restraints posed by computer performance and/or scientific knowledge. The present book treats the theme of modelling chemical exposure and risk in terms of four main topics: model characteristics, applications, comparison of estimated with measured concentrations, and modelling credibility.
Del 2 - NATO Science Series: IV:
Modelling of Environmental Chemical Exposure and Risk
Häftad, Engelska, 2001
1 083 kr
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Mathematical models are being increasingly used to estimate the concentrations of a wide range of substances in the environment for a variety of reasons, including government control and legislation, and risk and hazard estimation. Exposure assessment has to be performed for many types of substances, including pesticides, industrial chemicals, pollutants, accidental discharges, etc. The interpretation of the results of model equations should always bear in mind the purpose for which the model used was built in the first place. Further, models are always an abstraction of reality, requiring simplifying assumptions to keep the models within the restraints posed by computer performance and/or scientific knowledge. The present book treats the theme of modelling chemical exposure and risk in terms of four main topics: model characteristics, applications, comparison of estimated with measured concentrations, and modelling credibility.
Del 3 - NATO Science Series: IV:
Mitigation and Financing of Seismic Risks: Turkish and International Perspectives
Inbunden, Engelska, 2001
1 115 kr
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Huge economic losses from natural disasters, including nearly 100 000 fatalities world wide in 1999 alone, gave rise to a renewed recognition by government, industry and the public that national governments and international agencies cannot simply go on as they have in the past. Changes in financial cover, better enforcement procedures for building standards, better business contingency planning, and well developed emergency response were demanded from all sides. In this volume an international group of experts present recent research on the variety of approaches adopted by different countries to assess natural hazard risks and the incentives for mitigating and financing them, the particular focus being in earthquake risks. The volume also presents an in-depth summary of recent reforms in Turkey related to seismic risks, with comparative research from many other countries. Linkages are emphasised between science and engineering infrastructure, insurance and risk management, and public policy.
Del 3 - NATO Science Series: IV:
Mitigation and Financing of Seismic Risks: Turkish and International Perspectives
Häftad, Engelska, 2001
1 115 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Huge economic losses from natural disasters, including nearly 100 000 fatalities world wide in 1999 alone, gave rise to a renewed recognition by government, industry and the public that national governments and international agencies cannot simply go on as they have in the past. Changes in financial cover, better enforcement procedures for building standards, better business contingency planning, and well developed emergency response were demanded from all sides. In this volume an international group of experts present recent research on the variety of approaches adopted by different countries to assess natural hazard risks and the incentives for mitigating and financing them, the particular focus being in earthquake risks. The volume also presents an in-depth summary of recent reforms in Turkey related to seismic risks, with comparative research from many other countries. Linkages are emphasised between science and engineering infrastructure, insurance and risk management, and public policy.
Del 4 - NATO Science Series: IV:
Assessment and Management of Environmental Risks
Cost-efficient Methods and Applications
Inbunden, Engelska, 2001
1 621 kr
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The management of environmental contamination requires decision makers to weigh existing risks against the potential effects of implementing environmental policies, considering both the benefits and disruptions that may result from different courses of action. This book represents an advance in the development and application of cost-efficient methods of risk assessment, especially under circumstances of budget constraints and in developing countries. It explores the potential of risk assessment to act as a unified and unifying technique for addressing a wide range of environmental problems. A wide range of issues are discussed, ranging from specific and local studies through global decision and management frameworks. The approaches developed range from specific methods through widely applied public policies. The book shows that the use of risk assessment can provide the scientific basis for environmentally sound, cost-effective policies, strategies and solutions to our environmental challenges.
Häftad, Engelska, 2001
1 621 kr
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Managing environmental contamination requires decision makers to weigh eXlstmg risks against the potential effects of implementing environmental policies - considering both the benefits and disruptions that may result from different actions. The NATO Advanced Research Workshop in Lisbon was an important step in the development and application of cost efficient methods of risk assessment especiaIly within the constraints of a budget. The goal of the workshop was to evaluate the potential for risk assessment to serve as a unified and unifying technique in addressing a wide range of environmental problems. Papers presented in this book discuss issues ranging from specific and local studies (specific site, ecosystem, pollutant) to global decision and management frameworks (watersheds, regions, integration of multiple poIlutants and stressors); they develop a range of approaches starting from specific methods to widely applied public policies (Figure 1). The papers show that the use of risk assessment can provide the scientific basis for environmentaIly sound and cost-efficient policies, strategies, and solutions to our environmental chaIlenges. The organization of the Proceedings reflects sessions and discussions during the workshop. The papers in the introductory Chapter summarize the positions of Drs. Glenn Suter (EPA) and Jim Wilson (Resources for the Future) regarding whether the use of often-expensive risk assessments in developing countries can be justified, given evolving regulatory institutions and limited resources.
Inbunden, Engelska, 2001
2 159 kr
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The environment contains an abundance of man-made and natural radionuclides, as well as polluting heavy metals. Their accumulation and the inevitable adverse impact on human health is a matter for serious international concern. Such modern environmental problems are reviewed in an integrated fashion here.The book's highlights are: the accumulation of actinide nuclei in the human body, including data on Pu and Am in some of the most seriously damaged regions of Russia, Belorussia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan; fundamental and applied aspects of heavy metal waste deposits; advances in analytical techniques (NAA, XRF, ICP-MS, AAS, PIXE, HPLC); the use of mosses and lichens to study heavy metal atmospheric deposition; research on toxicology, food and nutrition, speciation and scalp hair as a biological indicator; new model of the Earth's crust allowing the reconstruction of the real origin of seismic catastrophes including a real possibility to predict earthquake or volcanic activity by studying radon gas, gamma and neutron activity in combination with hydrogen and helium isotope flow and complemented by satellite data on the state of the ionosphere; and data on accelerator driven transmutation experiments (protons accelerated as JINR Synchrophasotron and 660 MeV Phasotron) with Pb blocks and 3000 kg natural uranium targets.
Häftad, Engelska, 2001
2 159 kr
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This volume entitled "Radionuclides and Heavy Metals in Environment" contains the Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop (ARW) "Monitoring of Natural and Man-Made Radionuclides and Heavy Metal Waste in Environment" that was held at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JlNR), Dubna, Russia from 3 October to 6 October, 2000. Originally, it was planned to held the ARW in 1999, the year when NATO was celebrating its 50th anniversary. Few days before opening it had to be postponed because of problems in issuing visa for all the colleagues who intended to participate. The ARW was organized and conducted by the co-directors Prof. Vladimir P. Perelygin, Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna, Russia and Dr. Peter Vater, Philipps Universitat, Marburg, Germany. The JlNR was chosen as the host institute of ARW because of the lack of contact and real co-operation between the former Soviet Union (FSU) countries specialists in ecology and their Western well experienced colleagues. The selection of this location and supplementary funds provided by Russian Foundation on Basic Research, Moscow, Russia, and the JINR, Dubna., Russia made it possible to attain a rather large number of participants and observers from FSU countries. The JlNR provided to all the participants of the workshop an effective car/minibus transportation Moscow-Dubna-Moscow and a rather good accommodation in Dubna.
Inbunden, Engelska, 2001
1 083 kr
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Notwithstanding past achievements, flood damage continues to rise throughout the world as the magnitudes of floods increase, partly as a result of poor land management and partly by climate change, growing populations and continuing development in flood-prone areas, and the aging and deterioration of flood defences. One of the major goals of water management is the protection of society from floods. That issue is addressed here in terms of such broad issues as flood analysis, flood impact, non-structural and structural flood management measures, Non-structural measures focus on flood plain management, flood insurance, flood forecasting and warning, and emergency measures during floods. Structural measures focus on catchment management, embankments and flood reservoirs. Post-flood measures are also discussed. Future planning of flood management should be based on a clear understanding of the effectiveness interventions and their impacts on river catchment ecosystems.
Häftad, Engelska, 2001
1 083 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Notwithstanding past achievements, flood damage continues to rise throughout the world as the magnitudes of floods increase, partly as a result of poor land management and partly by climate change, growing populations and continuing development in flood-prone areas, and the aging and deterioration of flood defences. One of the major goals of water management is the protection of society from floods. That issue is addressed here in terms of such broad issues as flood analysis, flood impact, non-structural and structural flood management measures. Non-structural measures focus on flood plain management, flood insurance, flood forecasting and warning, and emergency measures during floods. Structural measures focus on catchment management, embankments and flood reservoirs. Post-flood measures are also discussed. Future planning of flood management should be based on a clear understanding of the effectiveness interventions and their impacts on river catchment ecosystems.
Inbunden, Engelska, 2002
2 159 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
A comprehensive, up-to-date review of lichens as biomonitors of air pollution (bioindication, metal and radionuclide accumulation, biomarkers), and as monitors of environmental change (including global climate change and biodiversity loss) in a wide array of terrestrial habitats. Several methods for using lichens as biomonitors are described in a special section of the book.
Häftad, Engelska, 2002
2 159 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
A comprehensive, up-to-date review of lichens as biomonitors of air pollution (bioindication, metal and radionuclide accumulation, biomarkers), and as monitors of environmental change (including global climate change and biodiversity loss) in a wide array of terrestrial habitats. Several methods for using lichens as biomonitors are described in a special section of the book.
Inbunden, Engelska, 2002
3 020 kr
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Groundwater issues have generated worldwide concern in recent decades. The problems are numerous: too little groundwater, too much groundwater, groundwater contaminated by either saline water or a broad spectrum of industrial and domestic pollutants. Many urban groundwater problems are not unique to any one region, which is the thinking behind this book. Many of the case studies presented here have never before been described in English. Overall, the papers represent the work and experience of researchers and groundwater professionals who have worked on urban groundwater issues in developed and less-developed nations around the world. They reveal the magnitude and scope of the problem as well as identifying future challenges, potential courses of action, and emerging technologies that offer hope for the future.
Häftad, Engelska, 2002
3 020 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Groundwater issues have generated worldwide concern in recent decades. The problems are numerous: too little groundwater, too much groundwater, groundwater contaminated by either saline water or a broad spectrum of industrial and domestic pollutants. Many urban groundwater problems are not unique to any one region, which is the thinking behind this book. Many of the case studies presented here have never before been described in English. Overall, the papers represent the work and experience of researchers and groundwater professionals who have worked on urban groundwater issues in developed and less-developed nations around the world. They reveal the magnitude and scope of the problem as well as identifying future challenges, potential courses of action, and emerging technologies that offer hope for the future.
Del 9 - NATO Science Series: IV:
Integration of Earth Science Research on the Turkish and Greek 1999 Earthquakes
Inbunden, Engelska, 2002
1 083 kr
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In 1999, two earthquakes occurred in the Istanbul-Marmara region of Turkey and the Athens-Corinth region of Greece, and an increased risk of further events caused great concern among the earth science community. This book presents and discusses the latest results from studies of the Izmit-Düzce and Athens earthquakes and assesses the data that are available and relevant to the geology, seismology, tectonics, geodesy and other fields related to earthquake studies and to evaluate earthquake hazard potential.
Häftad, Engelska, 2002
1 083 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
In 1999, two earthquakes occurred in the Istanbul-Marmara region of Turkey and the Athens-Corinth region of Greece, and an increased risk of further events caused great concern among the earth science community. This book presents and discusses the latest results from studies of the Izmit-Düzce and Athens earthquakes and assesses the data that are available and relevant to the geology, seismology, tectonics, geodesy and other fields related to earthquake studies and to evaluate earthquake hazard potential.
Inbunden, Engelska, 2002
1 083 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
The 15th anniversary of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant disaster offered an opportunity for an expert assessment of the situation in 2001 and suggestions for approaches to managing the information associated with the site and surrounding contaminated territories. The great quantity of data coming from the contaminated region was and is very difficult to use without the aid of modern information technologies, especially Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS). Application of these technologies, and related expertise, became crucial to the region's economic recovery and sustainability planning. Given the real possibility of a similar accident at nuclear facilities elsewhere around the world, the development of recovery strategies based on experience gained at Chernobyl, using modern scientific methods and technologies, will be invaluable in the future. The presentations and discussion reported in the book have led to some key conclusions. Image maps derived from satellite imagery are the most economical, up-to-date and readily available basis for Chernobyl-related applications, as well as for other future applications.The study of soil-plant transfer of radionuclides afforded comparatively much more reliable data. GIS in association with adequate knowledge is a valuable tool in decision making and modelling of contaminated areas and objects.
Häftad, Engelska, 2002
1 083 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
The 15th anniversary of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant disaster offered an opportunity for an expert assessment of the situation in 2001 and suggestions for approaches to managing the information associated with the site and surrounding contaminated territories. The great quantity of data coming from the contaminated region was and is very difficult to use without the aid of modern information technologies, especially Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS). Application of these technologies, and related expertise, became crucial to the region's economic recovery and sustainability planning. Given the real possibility of a similar accident at nuclear facilities elsewhere around the world, the development of recovery strategies based on experience gained at Chernobyl, using modern scientific methods and technologies, will be invaluable in the future. The presentations and discussion reported in the book have led to some key conclusions. Image maps derived from satellite imagery are the most economical, up-to-date and readily available basis for Chernobyl-related applications, as well as for other future applications.The study of soil-plant transfer of radionuclides afforded comparatively much more reliable data. GIS in association with adequate knowledge is a valuable tool in decision making and modelling of contaminated areas and objects.
Inbunden, Engelska, 2002
1 669 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) have developed rapidly and provide powerful tools for the capture, manipulation, integration, interrogation, modelling, analysis and visualisation of data - tools that are used for policy support in a wide range of areas at almost all geographic and administrative levels. This holds especially for emergency preparedness and health risk reduction, which are all essentially spatial problems. However, many initiatives have remained disconnected and uncoordinated, leading to less powerful, less compatible and less widely implemented systems than might otherwise have been the case. The matters discussed here include the probabilistic nature of most environmental hazards and the semi-random factors that influence interactions between these and human exposures; the effects of temporal and spatial scales on hazard assessment and imputed risk; the effects of measurement error in risk estimation and the stratification of risks and their impacts according to socioeconomic characteristics; and the quantification of socioeconomic differences in vulnerability and susceptibility to environmental hazards.GIS are powerful analytical tools in their own right, but what is needed is much more effective communication between the many disciplines, professions and stakeholders concerned - something which this book aims to help to achieve.
Häftad, Engelska, 2002
1 669 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) have developed rapidly and provide powerful tools for the capture, manipulation, integration, interrogation, modelling, analysis and visualisation of data - tools that are used for policy support in a wide range of areas at almost all geographic and administrative levels. This holds especially for emergency preparedness and health risk reduction, which are all essentially spatial problems. However, many initiatives have remained disconnected and uncoordinated, leading to less powerful, less compatible and less widely implemented systems than might otherwise have been the case. The matters discussed here include the probabilistic nature of most environmental hazards and the semi-random factors that influence interactions between these and human exposures; the effects of temporal and spatial scales on hazard assessment and imputed risk; the effects of measurement error in risk estimation and the stratification of risks and their impacts according to socioeconomic characteristics; and the quantification of socioeconomic differences in vulnerability and susceptibility to environmental hazards.GIS are powerful analytical tools in their own right, but what is needed is much more effective communication between the many disciplines, professions and stakeholders concerned - something which this book aims to help to achieve.
Del 12 - NATO Science Series: IV:
Sustainable Coastal Management
A Transatlantic and Euro-Mediterranean Perspective
Inbunden, Engelska, 2002
1 621 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Recent assessment of progress in coastal management at the national level shows an impressive growth of efforts after the 1992 Earth Summit, particularly in Europe and the Mediterranean. This text contains regional surveys of coastal management progress in Europe and the Mediterranean since 1992, discussion of regional trends, developments in decision making, and co-operative activities. It then goes on to assess national progress towards coastal management, including the development of national coastal management systems, efforts at co-ordinated planning and management, and the development and use of environmental codes of practice. It then examines selected priority issues in the Northern Adriatic: economic integration and regional economic development, international scientific and technological co-operation in marine affairs and coastal tourism. Finally, the book covers the use of GIS in coastal environments and coastal engineering, the role played by scientific information in coastal policy, and the importance of free trade agreements.
Häftad, Engelska, 2002
1 621 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Recent assessment of progress in coastal management at the national level shows an impressive growth of efforts after the 1992 Earth Summit, particularly in Europe and the Mediterranean. This text contains regional surveys of coastal management progress in Europe and the Mediterranean since 1992, discussion of regional trends, developments in decision making, and co-operative activities. It then goes on to assess national progress towards coastal management, including the development of national coastal management systems, efforts at co-ordinated planning and management, and the development and use of environmental codes of practice. It then examines selected priority issues in the Northern Adriatic: economic integration and regional economic development, international scientific and technological co-operation in marine affairs and coastal tourism. Finally, the book covers the use of GIS in coastal environments and coastal engineering, the role played by scientific information in coastal policy, and the importance of free trade agreements.
Inbunden, Engelska, 2002
1 621 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Lake Issyk-Kul is a closed lake located in the Tien Shan mountain belt of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan. It is the world's fifth deepest lake (668 m) and the second largest high altitude lake in the world (1607 m above sea level). The lake is affected by several environmental threats of both anthropogenic and natural origin: decline of the lake level resulting in progressively increasing salinity, incomplete vertical water exchange, and risk of contamination by past and present industrial activity.Although the lake has been intensively studied, the information is only available in unpublished reports or local scientific journals. This book presents for the first time to an international audience the main physical, chemical, biological and geological characteristics of the lake, the fruits of many years of observations, complemented by recent results of international projects. Case studies of similar problems in other parts of the world are presented, together with ethical aspects of the environmental protection of the lake.
Häftad, Engelska, 2002
1 621 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Lake Issyk-Kul is a closed lake located in the Tien Shan mountain belt of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan. It is the world's fifth deepest lake (668 m) and the second largest high altitude lake in the world (1607 m above sea level). The lake is affected by several environmental threats of both anthropogenic and natural origin: decline of the lake level resulting in progressively increasing salinity, incomplete vertical water exchange, and risk of contamination by past and present industrial activity.Although the lake has been intensively studied, the information is only available in unpublished reports or local scientific journals. This book presents for the first time to an international audience the main physical, chemical, biological and geological characteristics of the lake, the fruits of many years of observations, complemented by recent results of international projects. Case studies of similar problems in other parts of the world are presented, together with ethical aspects of the environmental protection of the lake.
Inbunden, Engelska, 2002
1 621 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Riverbank filtration is widely used in Europe and to some extent in the United States for the public water supply. It is a cost-effective and realisable treatment technology in which horizontal and vertical wells pump a mixture of ground water and induced surface water from a river. This book describes the biogeochemical issues involved in contaminant removal from surface water and the mechanisms of pathogen removal. Specifically, the following three points are considered: the role of hydrogeological and well construction factors in the development of redox zones at bank filtration sites and the resulting impacts on contaminant removal; the mechanisms of pathogen removal, including the processes, colloid filtration, die-away, decay and predation; and the status of riverbank filtration processes in NATO partner countries.
Häftad, Engelska, 2002
1 621 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Riverbank filtration is widely used in Europe and to some extent in the United States for the public water supply. It is a cost-effective and realisable treatment technology in which horizontal and vertical wells pump a mixture of ground water and induced surface water from a river. This book describes the biogeochemical issues involved in contaminant removal from surface water and the mechanisms of pathogen removal. Specifically, the following three points are considered: the role of hydrogeological and well construction factors in the development of redox zones at bank filtration sites and the resulting impacts on contaminant removal; the mechanisms of pathogen removal, including the processes, colloid filtration, die-away, decay and predation; and the status of riverbank filtration processes in NATO partner countries.
Del 15 - NATO Science Series: IV:
Innovative Approaches to the On-Site Assessment and Remediation of Contaminated Sites
Inbunden, Engelska, 2002
1 621 kr
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The in-situ and on-site assessment and remediation of contaminated sites, together with risk-based management and control of hazardous substances, are potentially less expensive than other assessment and remediation approaches, while maintaining accuracy and effectiveness. Cost-effective remedial and management approaches that are also effective in minimizing exposure and risk to human health and the environment are a critical need throughout the world, especially in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, where resources that can be devoted to chemical clean-up are especially limited. Although much of the focus of this book is on natural processes and how they might be enhanced for the management of contaminated sites, there is also a recognition that a portion of sites may require more invasive approaches, which are especially useful in managing source areas that contribute to the migration of contaminants in groundwater and other media. Among the more invasive approaches discussed are solvent extraction, direct bioremediation of PCBs, source areas and munitions, and chemical oxidation.
Häftad, Engelska, 2002
1 621 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
The in-situ and on-site assessment and remediation of contaminated sites, together with risk-based management and control of hazardous substances, are potentially less expensive than other assessment and remediation approaches, while maintaining accuracy and effectiveness. Cost-effective remedial and management approaches that are also effective in minimizing exposure and risk to human health and the environment are a critical need throughout the world, especially in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, where resources that can be devoted to chemical clean-up are especially limited. Although much of the focus of the book is on natural processes and how they might be enhanced for the management of contaminated sites, there is also a recognition that a portion of sites may require more invasive approaches, which are especially useful in managing source areas that contribute to the migration of contaminants in groundwater and other media. Among the more invasive approaches discussed are solvent extraction, direct bioremediation if PCBs, source areas and munitions, and chemical oxidation.