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0. 0 Psychology versus Complex Systems Science Over the last century, psychology has become much less of an art and much more of a science. Philosophical speculation is out; data collection is in. In many ways this has been a very positive trend. Cognitive science (Mandler, 1985) has given us scientific analyses of a variety of intelligent behaviors: short-term memory, language processing, vision processing, etc. And thanks to molecular psychology (Franklin, 1985), we now have a rudimentary understanding of the chemical processes underlying personality and mental illness. However, there is a growing feeling-particularly among non-psychologists (see e. g. Sommerhoff, 1990) - that, with the new emphasis on data collection, something important has been lost. Very little attention is paid to the question of how it all fits together. The early psychologists, and the classical philosophers of mind, were concerned with the general nature of mentality as much as with the mechanisms underlying specific phenomena. But the new, scientific psychology has made disappointingly little progress toward the resolution of these more general questions. One way to deal with this complaint is to dismiss the questions themselves. After all, one might argue, a scientific psychology cannot be expected to deal with fuzzy philosophical questions that probably have little empirical signifi cance. It is interesting that behaviorists and cognitive scientists tend to be in agreement regarding the question of the overall structure of the mind.
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Contributions to Mathematical Psychology, Psycho� metrics and Methodology presents the most esteemed research findings of the 22nd European Mathematical Psychology Group meeting in Vienna, Austria, September 1991. The selection of work appearing in this volume contains not only contributions to mathematical psychology in the narrow sense, but also work in psychometrics and methodology, with the common element of all contributions being their attempt to deal with scientific problems in psychology with rigorous mathematics reasoning. The book contains 28 chapters divided into five parts: Perception, Learning, and Cognition; Choice and Reaction Time; Social Systems; Measurement and Psychometrics; and Methodology. It is of interest to all mathematical psychologists, educational psychologists, and graduate students in these areas.
Categorization and Differentiation
A Set, Re-Set, Comparison Analysis of the Effects of Context on Person Perception
Häftad, Engelska, 1985
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In the context of interpersonal interaction, it is possible to characterize human beings as complex sources of information. When interacting with one another, people in tentionally, as well as unintentionally, emit cues which other people can use as a basis for generating inferences and forming impressions about them. As a rule, the informa tion that one receives about another person is complex, mutable, and multidimensional. Often, it is contradictory. One of the more enduring lines of investigation in social psychology has been concerned with understanding the processes whereby people mold such diverse information into a single, unified impression. The linear approach The most influential approach to this issue in recent years has been Anderson's information integration theory (e. g. , Anderson, 1974). The goal of this approach to im pression formation is the formulation of an algebraic model which describes the relation between stimulus input charac teristics and reported judgments. According to information integration theory, a stimulus is characterized hy two parameters: scale value and weight. The scale value of a stimulus represents the perceiver's subjective response to the information on the dimension of judgment (e. g. , good-bad, light-heavy, like-dislike). The weight of a stimulus is its importance or relevance to the judgment. It is perhaps best conceptualized as the proportion that each element of a compound stimulus contributes to the overall evaluation of the compound.
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I have attended quite a few conferences and meetings devoted to the ideas of Kurt Lewin. Among these the 1984 conference at Temple was out standing for its high quality. What made it so successful? Several things. The conference included a stimulating mix of generations. The first generation of women who obtained their Ph. D. 's in psychology in Berlin in the 1920's strike me as a remarkable group. Now in their 80's, they are characterized by enormous vigor and energy. They are still professionally active. Two of them - Tamara Dembo and Maria Rickers Ovsienkina - joined us. Other participants in the Temple conference had been in Iowa in the 1930's and 1940's, or at MIT. Of course there were many who had learned about Lewin from their own teachers, and in some cases, their teachers' teachers. There was a good mixture of ap plied psychologists and academics. Father said on several occasions that he did not want to found a school of psychology as such. Rather he wanted to introduce the field theoretical viewpoint and approach. I think he would have been stimulated by and enthusiastic about the many diverse areas to which Lewinian analy ses, ideas, and concepts are applied today, as illustrated by this volume. He would have been pleased to see so many people applying basic theoreti cal concepts to important social problems. Father loved to discover new things about America.
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Nevitt Sanford's career in psychology has spanned the years from the 1930's to the present. The canon of his works is vast--eight books and some 200 chapters, monographs, and articles. The contributions to this book, by students and colleagues, remind us of the great variety and significance of the concerns and interests he has addressed--development over the course of a human life, education (with emphasis upon higher education), personality theory, and political psychology (incorporating the concept of social action). Arriving upon the scene in psychology when he did, one of Nevitt Sanford's first publications, KhY~i~~~, K~~~££~li!r, ~££ ~£~£l~~~~iE (1943), reflected the interest of that time in biology and physiology (a concern of psychology which declined for some time thereafter, to be revived in the 1960's). It was also, however, the decade after psyc- analysis and Marxist ideology had made their dramatic entrance upon the stage of American intellectual life, and these two schools of thought, in many ways contradictory, have profoundly influenced him ever since. Nevitt has never lost his fascination with the power of infancy and childhood to affect development, and with the workings of the unconscious.
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And Applications To The Human-Computer Interface Michael E. Fotta AT&T Communications 16th FIr. Atrium II, Cincinnati, OH 45202 Artificial intelligence (AI) programs represent knowledge in a fashion similar to human knowledge and the activities of an AI system are closer to human behavior than that of traditional systems. Thus, AI enables the computer to act more like a human instead of making the human think and act more like a computer. This capability combined with applying human factors concepts to the interface can greatly improve the human-computer interface. This paper provides an intro duction to artificial intelligence and then proposes a number of methods for using AI to improve the human-machine inter action. AN INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE Definition There are many definitions of artificial intelligence (AI) running from the very general to the very detailed. Perhaps the most well accepted general definition is that by Elaine Rich: "Artificial intelligence is the study of how to make computers do things at which, at the moment, people are better", (Rich, 1983). A good example of a detailed definition is provided by the Brattle Research Corporation; "In simplified terms, artificial intelligence works with pattern matching methods which attempt to describe objects, events or pro cesses in terms of their qualitative features and logical and compu tational relationships," (Mishkoff, 1985).
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Enriched and Impoverished Environments: Effects on Brain and Behaviour is the most recent review of the active area of neuronal plasticity. The question of how experience is recorded is fundamental to psychology; speculations and investigations concerning the role of the brain in this process have entered a particularly exciting phase as of the late 1980's. Manipulations of environmental complexity is one of the earliest methods utilized in the study of neural plasticity. This monograph organizes the evidence to date concerning the responsiveness of neural and behavioural systems to external manipulation of the environment. Further consideration is given to the issues of causation of the general effects of environment on brain and behaviour.
Long-Term Retention of Knowledge and Skills
A Cognitive and Instructional Perspective
Häftad, Engelska, 1987
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A. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUNDl,2 This report reviews and interprets research on the nature and magnitude of the effects of those factors which influence how well knowledge and skills (K&S) are retained over relatively long periods of nonuse. Our interest lies in the kinds of knowledge domains and skills that military personnel must master to function effectively on their jobs. The practical concern impelling this study is that K&S degradation or loss (which we will refer to as "decay") can and does occur, often and severely enough, to jeopardize military preparedness. There are occasions in all the military services when personnel who have just completed their training do not receive an opportunity to practice or use their new capabilities for weeks or months. In the case of reservists who may be called back to active duty, the period of nonuse of relevant military job skills may be counted in terms of years. B. OBJECTIVES The overall objective is to critically analyze the relevant scientific literature which relates the processes involved in learning to those of memory, taking into account the characteristics of the learner and the learning tasks. More specifically, we have focused on the following sub-objectives: 1. Identify, describe and rank the influence and the interactions of the important major variables that affect long-term retention (LTR); 1 I am indebted to Dr. Jesse Orlansky, Institute for Defense Analyses, for his encouragement and guidance through all phases of this report.
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The Expression of Attitude deals with a number of broad but interrelated questions: what are attitudes, how do they relate to behavior, how are they acquired, and in what ways can they be shared? The author argues that consistency, within attitude structure and between attitudes and behavior, arises primarily from interpersonal rather than intrapersonal processes. Emphasis is placed on how people interpret behavior as an expression of attitude, and what they demand of such behavior before they treat it as decodable in a particular way.
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Survey researchers have long been aware that the way in which questions are asked determines the obtained responses. However, the exact processes that mediate response effects remained elusive. In the present volume, cognitive psychologists and survey methodologists explore the cognitive processes that underlie respondents' answers to survey questions. The contributors provide an introduction to information processing theories for survey researchers, review current knowledge of response effects in the light of recent theorizing in cognitive psychology, and report a number of experimental studies on question context and question wording. In combination, the chapters provide a theoretical framework for the analysis of response effects in surveys and raise a number of applied and theoretical issues that have so far not been addressed in cognitive psychology.
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Skill Acquisition Rates and Patterns reviews and synthesizes the data and findings from the literature on skill acquisition, learning, retention, and transfer. This integrative review deals with the domain of time as it influences performance, i.e. with changes in capability to perform that occur as a function of time of practice. The author stresses the applicability of available information to the estimation of an appropriate time course for training and to related areas of potential training improvements.
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The studies presented in this book should be of interest to anybody concerned with the teaching of arithmetic to young children or with cognitive development in general. The 'eaching experiment· was carried out with half a dozen children entering first grade over two years in biweekly sessions. Methodologically the authors' research is original. It is a longitudinal but not a naturalistic study, since the experimenter-teachers directed their interaction with each individual child with a view to his or her possible progress. It is experimental in the sense that two groups of subjects were selected according to criteria derived from an earlier study (Steffe, von Glasersfeld, Richards & Cobb, 1983) and that the problems proposed were comparable, though far from identical across the subjects; but unlike more rigid and shorter "learning" or ''training" studies it does not include pre-and posttests, or predetermined procedures. Theoretically, the authors subscribe to Piagefs constructivism: numbers are made by children, not found (as they may find some pretty rocks, for example) or accepted from adults (as they may accept and use a toy). The authors interpret changes in the children's counting behaviors in terms of constructivist concepts such as assimilation, accommodation, and reflective abstraction, and certain excerpts from protocols provide on-line examples of such processes at work. They also subscribe to Vygotsky's proposal for teachers '0 utilize the zone of proximal development and to lead the child to what he (can) not yet do· (1965, p. 104).
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In 1885 Herman Ebbinghaus showed the world how the scientific method could be applied to the elusive phenomena of memory. But what of work on memory before Ebbinghaus? The long ascendance of the Ebbinghaus tradition has eclipsed the contributions of scholars before Ebbinghaus. Memory in Historical Perspective draws together for the first time a collection of writings that figured prominently in scholarly thought about memory from the 8th century B. C. until the scientific investigation of memory began in the late 19th century. Memory in Historical Perspective will be of value to students, researchers, teachers, and writers who wish to place the study of memory in its historical context. The writings are thought-provoking; they deal with a wide range of basic issues in memory in a direct and refreshing way. A study of these writings will stimulate insights into current issues about memory in psychology, philosophy, artificial intelligence, anthropology, and education.
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Language and Learning in the Cooperative Classroom reports the results of an experiment on the effects of cooperative learning. The authors address the following questions in detail: Is the effect of cooperative learning on achievement more salient for pupils from the majority or minority ethnic groups? Do pupils who study with the Group-Investigation method display more extensive verbal interaction with their peers than pupils who study with the Whole-Class method? Is the pupil's verbal interaction in groups related to his/her academic achievement? The findings are discussed in terms of their relevance for classroom instruction, for different theories of language behavior and language research, and for issues regarding ethnic relations in multi-ethnic classrooms.
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This book is the first comprehensive summary of the General Social Survey since its origin in 1972. Topics range over the whole subject matter of the GSS, from political behavior and attitudes to the mores, psychological states, and socio-economic characteristics of the American public. This volume provides a quick reference guide to the major questions asked in the GSS. Summaries for all respondents appear along with breakdowns by gender and standard age categories (age 18 - 85). The list of tables and the index offer readers convenient access to specific questions while the topical arrangement of the tables provides a coherent presentation of related subjects. For those unfamiliar with the GSS this will serve as an exciting and comprehensive introduction. Students in sociology, psychology, political science, economics, American studies, family studies, aging, social work, and health fields will find it an exceptional source of information. For researchers, the book provides a simplified reference to the GSS and data for statistical treatment in analytical studies.
Recent Trends in Theoretical Psychology
Proceedings of the Second Biannual Conference of the International Society for Theoretical Psychology, April 20–25, 1987, Banff, Alberta, Canada
Häftad, Engelska, 1988
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This volume constitutes the proceedings of the second biannual conference of the International Society for Theoretical Psychology (see Epilogue) held in Banff, Alberta, Canada, April 20-25, 1987. Thirty-nine papers were presented during the four days of the conference including an invited address by Kenneth Gergen. Unfortunately, even after severely restricting the length of the written papers, the required limitation on printed space permitted only 34 of these to be included in these proceed ings. While most of the papers required editorial adjustment, the authors had final word on style and content. The classification of conference papers tends to be somewhat arbi trary' but we decided to structure the chapters under four headings: phi losophy, metatheory, methodology, and theory. By philosophy we refer primarily to issues in the philosophy of science as these pertain to the dis cipline of psychology. Metatheory refers to theory, drawing on the philo sophy of science and having implications for methodology, about psycho logical theories. Methodology refers to both theory of inquiry and specif ic methods of investigation as these derive from philosophical and meta theoretical considerations. By theory we refer to both analyses of the foundations of extant theory, including historical and sociological ana lyses, and the advancement of substantive theory.
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Evaluation of Performance: A Judgmental Approach presents a theoretical analysis of the emotional significance of self-evaluative reactions and their relevance in explaining unipolar depression. The author discusses both the theoretical and practical implications of her research findings from two experiments: one related to self-evaluation under threat to self-esteem and the other to context manipulation.
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"Double Take" is a drug education package produced by the Department of Health and Social Security (United Kingdom). This video package was distributed at no cost to all secondary schools catering to students from eleven years onwards in England and Wales during 1986. This book reports the results of a research evaluation of this educational package, particularly in terms of its acceptability to teachers and pupils. The evaluation discussed in this book was conducted deliberately within the context of organizational and methodological restrictions. The primary concern was less with the potential effectiveness of "Double Take" under optimal conditions. Rather, the investigators were interested in the ways in which teachers themselves chose to adopt and integrate the package within existing courses and with the restrictions of pupils in their schools.
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I shall propose that the unlearned motives of persons are primary emotions. I am not surprised that many informed readers will wonder where I have been for the last five decades when even the conception of unlearned motives (instincts, drives, urges) has been shown to be little more than the result of undisciplined investigation? And here I am proposing that in the nature and dynamics of some emotions that persons experience we can gain more adequate understanding of human motives at the unlearned level. During the last five decades I have spent most of my time teaching the histlDry of philosophy, metaphysics, philosophy of religion, ethics and theory of value, the psychology of personali ty, and th~ philosophy of personality. Increasingly I have paid special attention to the ways in which claims about ~the nature of man I influence the theory of motives, emotions, and feelings. What kept impressing me is the way in which the viii interpretation of the "findings" about motives, feelings, and emotion reflect unargued conceptions of human nature, or that the views of fundamental motives, feelings, and emotions unduly dominate the underlying conception of the person. In focusing attention first on the essential nature of a person I shall be discussing issues that are actually basic to our more analytical interpretation of the nature and dynamics of the primary motives or primary emotions.
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In 1982, when my book The Social Psychology of Tourist Behaviour was published, it was almost possible to review academic research on tourism. In 1988, in a book of similar scale, such a review is almost impossible. The aim of the present volume is, therefore, to outline a body of work which adopts a consistent theme and method in exploring the topic of tourism. The approach is one of emphasising tourists' reactions and behaviours. The work is both behavioural and cognitive, and stems principally from applied traditions in social and environmental psychology. The examples of tourist studies tend to be Australian, British, and North American, principally because work elsewhere in psychological studies of tourists is less well organised. The nationality of the researchers should not, however, confine the application of the research findings, since while the examples may be specific the results are applicable in Brisbane, Bognor or Bogota. The book is intended not just for academic tourism researchers but also for all psychologists, so that they might note an understudied phenomenon within their discipline. For leisure researchers it is hoped that it will provide an opportunity for them to see developments parallel to their own research efforts in studying recreational behaviour. Is it also a volume for tourism managers and executives? In part it is, and the sections such readers might find of particular interest are Chapters 1, 2, 3 and 9.
Psychometric Properties of Fourteen Latent Constructs from the Oregon Youth Study
Häftad, Engelska, 1988
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This technical volume is intended to serve as a reference book for researchers who are using constructs or indicators to describe family interaction. In these analyses, each concept {latent construct} is defined by a minimum of 3 {and up to 10} indicators. The volume details the psychometric analyses of each indicator {itemetric study, reliability, distribution, skewness, and kurtosis}. The fit of the indicators to the construct is examined with factor analysis constrained to a single solution. The results of the analyses constitute the preliminary definition of a construct. The process of construct definition is set forth in the papers by Patterson and Bank {1986; in press}. This manual can also serve as a source of further information to researchers who read published articles or books from the Oregon Youth Study {OYS} and need more detailed information on the analyses conducted than can be provided in the space of a book or journal article on theory and results. One of the costs of working with a data set of this magnitude is that the analyses conducted cannot be reported fully in anyone publication, with the result that the interested reader finds it insufficient to replicate the studies. It is hoped that this volume will provide a solid foundation for all who have than a passing interest in the OYS, or in analyses for this type of data more set.
Simulation Fidelity in Training System Design
Bridging the Gap Between Reality and Training
Häftad, Engelska, 1988
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Business, academia, industry, and the military require well trained personnel to function in highly complex working environments. To reduce high training costs and to improve the effectiveness of training, training system developers often use sophisticated training media such as, simulators, videodisks, and computer-based instruction. The designers of these training media are continually striving to provide maximum training effectiveness at minimum cost. Although literature is available on the implementation and use of specific training media, there is little guidance on a major feature that is central to these media. All of these media present the learner with an interactive simulation of the real world. Effective training system design can be facilitated if the requirements of the real-world task are properly included in training. A conceptual bridge is necessary to link these actual task requirements to the characteristics of the training system. This book provides such a conceptual bridge. The need for improved training is critical in the area of equipment operation, maintenance, and decision making tasks. For example, the importance of improved operator training in the nuclear power industry has become paramount since the Three Mile Island accident and the more serious accident at the Chernobyl reactor in the U. S. S. R. Technology, such as the availability and power of computers,offers a wider variety of training options, but requires additional training system design decisions.
Self-Representation
The Second Attribution-Personality Theory Conference, CSPP-LA, 1986
Häftad, Engelska, 1988
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This volume reports recent results of investigations into the role of attributional processes in self-presentation. The volume casts a wide net with work of interest to both clinicians and cognitive theorists. Self-presentation, self-enhancement, defensiveness, and self-handicapping are all important concepts for clinical treatment as well as for attribution theory. The excuses people make for their actions and the morality of blaming and responsibility also fit into this link between attribution and personality. This volume addresses such issues with an up-to-date presentation of current research by the leading investigators of cognitive approaches to the self.
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Handbook of Interpersonal Competence Research offers a vital desk reference to anyone doing research on social skills and interaction. Interpersonal competence, defined broadly, refers to the quality or skillfulness of social interaction. The reference manual provides a complete and comprehensive bibliography on this subject, with over 1,600 entries, in addition to a review of over 80 measures directly related to the study of competence. The Handbook covers more measures, more constellation measures, and provides a far more detailed bibliography than any source available to date. No other work on this subject approaches the level of breadth and depth of both published and unpublished background sources. Handbook of Interpersonal Competence Research will be valuable to clinicians, consulting psychologists, organizational consultants, researchers, and students interested in the assessment of social skills.
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Racism and sexism remain prevalent in societies today. Based on this proven premise, the authors of Affirmative Action in Perspective maintain that a policy of equal opportunity as practiced in America is not a feasible, realistic solution to the "legacy of racial and sexual discrimination". Drs. Blanchard and Crosby have edited a volume which clearly displays their conviction that affirmative action as a policy has the potential to establish a society more equitable than the society we know now. Distinguished contributors to this volume discuss the policy from a level of definition to actual case studies and further, to the theoretical examination of the justice of affirmative action. Throughout the book the urgency of questioning current policies is evident; so too is the need for basic understanding of the realities of injustice which draw the line between the advantaged and the disadvantaged.
Reducing Benzodiazepine Consumption
Psychological Contributions to General Practice
Häftad, Engelska, 1989
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Spurred by reports in 1980 detailing the ineffectiveness of long-term treatment with benzodiazepines, the authors of this volume began a study to investigate the reasons behind the addiction, quickly adopting a psychological approach to treatment. In testing the efficacy of anxiety management techniques as an alternative to benzodiazepine use, Drs. Cormack, Owen and Dewey strongly emphasize the importance of the working relationship between the general practitioner and the psychologist. Reducing Benzodiazepine Consumption offers management solutions for the clinician in treating patients suffering from addiction to these drugs.
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Many of the diseases which afflict people in an affluent society like the United States seem to be related to food consumption (e.g., adult-onset diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, and colon cancer). In recent years, the health-related professions have become aware that their exclusive aim of disease treatment must be expanded to include health promotion. Professionals in food and nutrition, health education, social marketing, and psychology, as well as others have become interested in finding ways to promote healthy behaviors such as appropriate food consumption patterns. To modify food-related behavior, knowledge about why people eat what they eat is required. Both biological and sociocultural factors determine people's consumption behavior. This monograph, however, examines only the sociocultural determinants of individuals' food-related behaviors within their zone of biological indifference. The sociocultural variables are divided into two major categories - sociodemographic and psychological. Sociodemographic variables are often called external variables and include income, ethnicity, age, and the like. Psychosocial variables are thought to reflect the individual's internal state, and commonly examined variables include knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes.