Nader El-Bizri - Böcker

The Brethren of Purity, the anonymous adepts of a tenth-century esoteric fraternity based in Basra and Baghdad, hold an eminent position in the history of science and philosophy in Islam due to the wide reception and assimilation of their monumental encyclopaedia, the Epistles of the Brethren of Purity. This compendium contains fifty-two epistles offering synoptic accounts of the classical sciences and philosophies of the age; divided into four classificatory parts, it treats themes in mathematics, logic, natural philosophy, psychology, metaphysics, and theology, in addition to didactic fables. Epistles 6 to 8 are from the first division of the Epistles, on the propaedeutical and mathematical sciences. Epistle 6 develops ideas concerning natural numbers and their arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic ratios, marked by the influence of Nicomachus of Gerasa and of Euclid. The Brethren here emphasize practical applications of proportionality in music, medicine, and alchemy. Epistle 7 addresses theoretical scientific knowledge as directed towards the spiritual realities of souls, the goal of which is to actualize human potential; this epistle also presents a remarkable classification of sciences. Epistle 8 surveys material cultures in the Islamic mediaeval milieu, embellished by a consideration of the effects of the heavenly bodies on the predisposition of individuals to follow specific trades. These three epistles are, of course, underpinned by the Brethren's perennial tropes of the microcosm/macrocosm analogy and the emanative hierarchy of existents.

Ikhwan al-Safa' (The Brethren of Purity) were the anonymous adepts of a tenth-century esoteric fraternity of lettered urbanites that was principally based in Basra and Baghdad. This brotherhood occupied a prominent station in the history of science and philosophy in Islam due to the wide reception and assimilation of their monumental encyclopaedia: Rasa'il Ikhwan al-Safa' (The Epistles of the Brethren of Purity). This compendium contained fifty-two epistles that offered synoptic explications of the classical sciences and philosophies of the age. Divided into four classificatory parts, it treated themes in mathematics, logic, natural philosophy, psychology, metaphysics and theology, in addition to moral and didactic fables. The Ikhwan were learned compilers of scientific and philosophical knowledge, and their Rasa'il constituted a paradigmatic legacy in the canonization of philosophy and the sciences in mediaeval Islamic civilization.This present volume gathers studies by leading philosophers, historians and scholars of Islamic Studies, who are also the editors and translators of the first Arabic critical editions and first complete annotated English translations of the Rasa'il Ikhwan al-Safa', which will be published in the OUP Series that this present volume initiates, as well as being members of the Editorial Board.The chapters of this present volume explore the conceptual and historical aspects of the philosophical and scientific contents of the Rasa'il and their classification, as well as investigating the authorship and dating of this corpus and the impact that the Ikhwan's intellectual tradition exercised in the unfolding of the history of ideas in Islam.

The Ikhwan al-Safa' (Brethren of Purity), the anonymous adepts of a tenth-century esoteric fraternity based in Basra and Baghdad, hold an eminent position in the history of science and philosophy in Islam due to the wide reception and assimilation of their monumental encyclopaedia, the Rasa 'il Ikhwan al-Safa' (Epistles of the Brethren of Purity). The fifty-two epistles offer synoptic accounts of the classical sciences of the age, treating themes in mathematics, logic, natural philosophy, psychology, metaphysics, and theology, in addition to didactic fables. The Rasa 'il constitutes a paradigmatic legacy in the canonization of philosophy and the sciences in mediaeval Islamic civilization, and has also shown a permeating influence in Western culture.This volume is the fifth of the series, consisting of the first critical edition of the Rasa 'il in its original Arabic, complete with the fully annotated English translation. Prepared by Dr Nader El-Bizri, Epistles 1 and 2 (on arithmetic and geometry) present technical and epistemic analyses of mathematical concepts and their metaphysical underpinnings, in terms of investigating the properties of numbers and of geometric magnitudes, based primarily on the traditions of Nicomachus of Geresa and of Euclid as interpreted by the Ikhwãn. With a Pythagorean construal of the ultimate principles of mathematics within the symbolic order of mysticism, and inspired by their own ontological outlook on the articles of faith in Islam, the Ikhwãn view arithmetic and geometry through a monotheistic spiritual lens. This informed their treatment of mathematical knowledge, in pedagogic and heuristic terms, as part of the essential disciplines of the quadrivium, which aimed at preparing novices to study logic, then sciences of nature and the soul, before graduating to the lofty topics of theology and metaphysics. The volume also provides an overview of the mathematical sciences within the Islamic intellectual milieu, and of the tenth-century urban culture of Mesopotamian and Syrian locales.

In this unique insight into the history and philosophy of mathematics and science in the mediaeval Arab world, the eminent scholar Roshdi Rashed illuminates the various historical, textual and epistemic threads that underpinned the history of Arabic mathematical and scientific knowledge up to the seventeenth century. The first of five wide-ranging and comprehensive volumes, this book provides a detailed exploration of Arabic mathematics and sciences in the ninth and tenth centuries.Extensive and detailed analyses and annotations support a number of key Arabic texts, which are translated here into English for the first time. In this volume Rashed focuses on the traditions of celebrated polymaths from the ninth and tenth centuries ‘School of Baghdad’ - such as the Banū Mūsā, Thābit ibn Qurra, Ibrāhīm ibn Sinān, Abū Ja´far al-Khāzin, Abū Sahl Wayjan ibn Rustām al-Qūhī - and eleventh-century Andalusian mathematicians like Abū al-Qāsim ibn al-Samh, and al-Mu’taman ibn Hūd. The Archimedean-Apollonian traditions of these polymaths are thematically explored to illustrate the historical and epistemological development of ‘infinitesimal mathematics’ as it became more clearly articulated in the eleventh-century influential legacy of al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham (‘Alhazen’). Contributing to a more informed and balanced understanding of the internal currents of the history of mathematics and the exact sciences in Islam, and of its adaptive interpretation and assimilation in the European context, this fundamental text will appeal to historians of ideas, epistemologists, mathematicians at the most advanced levels of research.

In this unique insight into the history and philosophy of mathematics and science in the mediaeval Arab world, the eminent scholar Roshdi Rashed illuminates the various historical, textual and epistemic threads that underpinned the history of Arabic mathematical and scientific knowledge up to the seventeenth century. The first of five wide-ranging and comprehensive volumes, this book provides a detailed exploration of Arabic mathematics and sciences in the ninth and tenth centuries.Extensive and detailed analyses and annotations support a number of key Arabic texts, which are translated here into English for the first time. In this volume Rashed focuses on the traditions of celebrated polymaths from the ninth and tenth centuries ‘School of Baghdad’ - such as the Banū Mūsā, Thābit ibn Qurra, Ibrāhīm ibn Sinān, Abū Ja´far al-Khāzin, Abū Sahl Wayjan ibn Rustām al-Qūhī - and eleventh-century Andalusian mathematicians like Abū al-Qāsim ibn al-Samh, and al-Mu’taman ibn Hūd. The Archimedean-Apollonian traditions of these polymaths are thematically explored to illustrate the historical and epistemological development of ‘infinitesimal mathematics’ as it became more clearly articulated in the eleventh-century influential legacy of al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham (‘Alhazen’). Contributing to a more informed and balanced understanding of the internal currents of the history of mathematics and the exact sciences in Islam, and of its adaptive interpretation and assimilation in the European context, this fundamental text will appeal to historians of ideas, epistemologists, mathematicians at the most advanced levels of research.

Bringing together a broad range of contributors including art, architecture, and design academic theorists and historians, in addition to practicing artists, architects, and designers, this volume explores the place of the sketchbook in contemporary art and architecture. Drawing upon a diverse range of theories, practices, and reflections common to the contemporary conceptualisation of the sketchbook and its associated environments, it offers a dialogue in which the sketchbook can be understood as a pivotal working tool that contributes to the creative process and the formulation and production of visual ideas. Along with exploring the theoretical, philosophical, psychological, and curatorial implications of the sketchbook, the book addresses emergent digital practices by way of examining contemporary developments in sketchbook productions and pedagogical applications. Consequently, these more recent developments question the validity of the sketchbook as both an instrument of practice and creativity, and as an educational device. International in scope, it not only explores European intellectual and artistic traditions, but also intercultural and cross-cultural perspectives, including reviews of practices in Chinese artworks or Islamic calligraphy, and situational contexts that deal with historical examples, such as Roman art, or modern practices in geographical-cultural regions like Pakistan.

Daya Krishna and Twentieth-Century Indian Philosophy introduces contemporary Indian philosophy as a unique philosophical genre through the writings of one its most significant exponents, Daya Krishna (1924-2007). It surveys Daya Krishna’s main intellectual projects: rereading classical Indian sources anew, his famous Samvad Project, and his attempt to formulate a new social and political theory for India.Conceived as a dialogue with Daya Krishna and contemporaries, including his interlocutors, Krishnachandra Bhattacharyya, Badrinath Shukla, Ramchandra Gandhi, and Mukund Lath, this book is an engaging introduction to anyone interested in contemporary Indian philosophy and in the thought-provoking writings of Daya Krishna.

This book offers the first introduction to a major Japanese philosophical movement through the interests and arguments of its founder, Nishida Kitaro (1870-1945), his successor, Tanabe Hajime (1885-1962), and student-turned-critic, Tosaka Jun (1900-1945). Focusing on their contributions to thinking about place, space, and dialectics, this concise introduction brings these influential thinkers to life by connecting their work to issues still debated in the philosophy of science and physics today. Beginning with an overview of the reception of quantum physics and relativity theory in Japan and concluding with an account of the direct relevance of the Kyoto School to the development of world philosophy in a posthuman age, each clearly-written chapter engages historical contexts and includes:· Carefully-chosen excerpts and original translations of Nishida, Tanabe, and Tosaka· Focus boxes explaining complex concepts and problems of contextualization· A timeline, glossary and index· Further reading lists featuring relevant and significant articles and books in EnglishThis introduction is an ideal starting point for students and lecturers looking to become better acquainted with three central Japanese philosophers and learn why their work impacts our current thinking about science.

Nishihira Tadashi, one of Japan's leading philosophers, introduces the deeply experiential philosophy of no-mind (mushin). In everyday Japanese, mushin is when one loses oneself in the reality of the present and becomes one with it, resulting in one’s best performance. However, behind this everyday use is a concept that touches the core of Japanese spirituality.This book explores no-mind in its dynamic complexity. It is both the letting go of the calculations of mind and at the same time the arising of a vibrant consciousness in unity with reality. This gives rise to various tensions: Is it about negating or affirming self? Is stillness or activity? How does it relate with social ethics, or religious transcendence? And what is stopping no-mind from descending into mere mindlessness?These tensional facets are explored through philosophy and history of thought in Japan, from pre-Buddhist Japanese thought, to Zen Buddhism in D.T. Suzuki and Toshihiko Izutsu, to swordsmanship and Noh theater. These historical approaches are brought to the here-and-now, dialoguing with psychology, ethics, and the experiences of everyday life, and ending with two preliminary practical explorations—What does it mean to care for another and to educate from the point of view of no-mind?

D.T. Suzuki (1870-1966) reached global fame for his writings on Zen Buddhism. In this introduction to his theories of self, knowledge, and the world, Suzuki is presented as a Buddhist philosopher in his own right.Beginning with a biography of his life providing the historical context to his thought and discussing Suzuki’s influences, chapters cover the Zen notion of the non-self and Suzuki's Zen view of consciousness, language, and religious truths. His ideas about philosophy and radical views on rationality and faith come to life in two new complete translations of The Place of Peace in our Heart (1894) and Religion and Science (1949), which helps us to understand why Suzuki’s description of Zen attracted the attention of many leading intellectuals and helped it become a household name in the English-speaking world.Offering the first complete overview of Suzuki’s approach, reputation, and legacy as a philosopher, this is for anyone interested in the philosophical relevance and development of Mahayana Buddhism today.

Karen O'Brien-Kop's introduction to the Yogasutra highlights its status as a significant work of philosophy. Approaching the Yogasutra as living philosophy, this book elucidates philosophical conceptions of yoga, recognises the logical structure the sutras follow and explains the rules and principles that have sustained Patañjali’s system of thought for centuries.Moving beyond standard interpretations of Patañjali's text and commentary as an aphoristic practice manual, O'Brien-Kop uses branches of philosophy to read the Yogasutra. Covering reality, self, ethics, language and knowledge, Patañjali’s philosophies come to the fore. The book introduces his reasoned positions on dual and non­dual metaphysics, the relationship between mind and body, the qualities of consciousness, the nature of freedom, and how to live ethically. Carefully-selected extracts from the primary text are translated for those unfamiliar with Sanskrit and commentaries run throughout. A glossary provides definitions of key concepts with useful translations. Accessible and up-to-date, this introduction broadens our understanding of Indian philosophical thought and explains why the Yogasutra deserves to be read alongside Parmenides’ ‘On Nature’ and Plato’s Phaedo as a classic of world philosophy.

Henry Odera Oruka was one of the most influential figures in 20th-century African philosophy. During the early years of the decolonization of African countries, as universities worked to redefine themselves, Odera drove changes to curricula and research. A tireless advocate for democracy and human rights in Africa, he repeatedly intervened in the political debates of his time.This is the first critical biography of both the man himself and African philosophy in the context of changing times, taking us through his early life, scholarly training, and Oruka's way of transforming the field of philosophy as it was taught in Kenya.The narrative unfolds from the personal to the global, from Africa to the world, and from African philosophy to the wider field of philosophy. Biographical material is woven with narratives of the social conditions and live questions as they arise in Oruka’s life in Kenya, Sweden, and the United States. We are introduced to his understanding of philosophy as a critique of society. Exposing prison practices in Africa and targeting capitalists, Oruka sought to remedy social problems on a global scale, from institutional racism and ethnic division to the wealth gap between rich and poor nations.Through archival material, personal interviews and primary texts, this book shines a light on Oruka's monumental contribution to African philosophy and global justice. Finally we can see how Oruka's insights are still relevant to how we think about poverty, philosophy and human rights today.

Mexican philosophy has been relegated for far too long to the margins of philosophy’s global scene. Carlos Alberto Sánchez brings it to the front and centre by demonstrating that its figures, methods, and texts, supplement, enrich, and broaden the scope and depth of both philosophy and our everyday understanding.Explaining the context and thinkers associated with relajo, zozobra, nepantla, corazonada, tik, and Mexistentialism, Sánchez goes beyond a standard introduction of Mexican philosophy. His sustained analysis of prominent concepts gives us a new vocabulary for understanding ourselves and the world we live in. Based on the concrete experience of Mexican life, we are introduced to influential thinkers and uniquely Mexican themes: the primacy of history and circumstance and the intrinsic value of community. Powered by a commitment to use Mexican philosophy to navigate the perplexing world we inhabit, Sánchez challenges the blanket application of Eurocentric philosophy to our 21st-century concerns. This is an essential starting point for Latin American philosophy scholars and anyone approaching Mexican philosophy for the very first time.

Consciousness has been a central theme of Indian philosophy for more than 2500 years. Returning to the theories that originated in the Classical age, Matthew MacKenzie presents the first comprehensive overview of Indian views about the nature and structure of consciousness. MacKenzie looks to the Upanisads and the early Buddhist discourses for the roots of the theories, following consciousness as it developed in the Abhidharma, Yogacara, and Pramaavada schools of Buddhism and the Nyaya, Yoga, Advaita, and Nondual Saiva schools of Hinduism. In the Upanisads, he introduces us to sages and kings who discussed the elusive light (prakasa) of consciousness and its relation to one’s deepest self (atman). In early Buddhist texts the complex flow of conscious mental events are explored within an impermanent, selfless reality. In yogic texts we find a sharp distinction between ever-shifting objects and the pure light of consciousness. Addressing timeless questions surrounding the fundamental nature of reality, MacKenzie focuses throughout on whether and how consciousness illuminates objects as well as itself. A critical and comparative introduction to a major philosophical subject, this book marks a new direction for understanding the cross-cultural philosophy of consciousness.

Consciousness has been a central theme of Indian philosophy for more than 2500 years. Returning to the theories that originated in the Classical age, Matthew MacKenzie presents the first comprehensive overview of Indian views about the nature and structure of consciousness. MacKenzie looks to the Upanisads and the early Buddhist discourses for the roots of the theories, following consciousness as it developed in the Abhidharma, Yogacara, and Pramaavada schools of Buddhism and the Nyaya, Yoga, Advaita, and Nondual Saiva schools of Hinduism. In the Upanisads, he introduces us to sages and kings who discussed the elusive light (prakasa) of consciousness and its relation to one’s deepest self (atman). In early Buddhist texts the complex flow of conscious mental events are explored within an impermanent, selfless reality. In yogic texts we find a sharp distinction between ever-shifting objects and the pure light of consciousness. Addressing timeless questions surrounding the fundamental nature of reality, MacKenzie focuses throughout on whether and how consciousness illuminates objects as well as itself. A critical and comparative introduction to a major philosophical subject, this book marks a new direction for understanding the cross-cultural philosophy of consciousness.

Angela Davis is iconic as an international figure but few recognize the educational, political and ideological contexts that formed the public persona. Excavating layers of networks, activists, academics, polemicists, and funders across the ideological spectrum, Joy James studies the paradigms and platforms that leveraged Angela Davis into recognition as an activist and radical intellectual.Beginning in Alabama in 1944 with Davis’s birthplace and ending in California in 1970 with a surrogate political family, James investigates context in order to better understand the agency and identity of Davis. Her chronology marks key events relevant to Davis, Black communities, and the US: AntiBlack repression under Jim Crow, Black bourgeois southern families, revolutionaries, elite education, communist parties, international travels, undergrad and graduate schooling—all interconnect and play a part in Davis's rise in stature from persecution as a UC graduate student to the UC Presidential chair some three decades later. Set against the backdrop of 21st-century US democracy and the rise of neofascists, James highlights of the centrality of those considered ancillary to US liberation movements. She unpacks the contradictions of iconography and revolutionary agency and shows how a triumphal figure from a symbolic era of struggle became the icon of the rare peoples’ victory.

Santideva’s 8th century Mahayana Buddhist classic, the Guide to the Practices of Awakening (Bodhicaryavatara), has been a source of philosophical inspiration in the Indian and Tibetan traditions for over a thousand years. Stephen Harris guides us through a philosophical exploration of Santideva’s masterpiece, introducing us to his understanding of the compassionate bodhisattva, who vows to liberate the entire universe from suffering. Individual chapters provide studies of the bodhisattva virtues of generosity, patience, compassion, and wisdom, illustrating the role each plays in Santideva’s account of well-being and moral development. Harris also provides in-depth analysis of many of Santideva’s most influential arguments, demonstrating how he employs reasoning as a method to cultivate moral character.As the first book-length English language philosophical study of Santideva’s most influential text, this will be essential reading for students and scholars of Buddhist ethics, as well as for anyone interested in intercultural ethics and the philosophy of well-being.

In Confucian Feminism Li-Hsiang Lisa Rosenlee expands the theoretical horizons of feminism by using characteristic Confucian terms, methods, and concerns to interrogate the issue of gender oppression and liberation.With its theoretical roots in the Confucian textual tradition, this is the first re-imagining of Confucianism that enriches, and is enriched by, feminism. Incorporating distinctive Confucian conceptual tools such as ren (benevolent governance), xiao (filial care), you (friendship), li (ritual), and datong (great community), Rosenlee creates an ethic of care that is feminist and Confucian. At the same time she confronts the issue of gender inequity in Confucian thought. Her hybrid feminist theory not only broadens the range of feminist understandings of the roots of gender oppression, but opens up what we believe constitutes gender liberation for women transnationally and transculturally.Here is a practical ethic that uses Confucianism to navigate the contours of inequality in everyday life.

Where does the great Bengali poet and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore stand in today’s global world?The legacy of Rabindranath Tagore is vast. No writer in the history of India and Asia in general matches his variety and range of creation. In this book, Ramin Jahanbegloo looks beyond the poetry and literature for which Tagore was awarded the Nobel Prize, showing how his thinking enriches every branch of the humanities – philosophy, pedagogy and the arts.Each chapter is dedicated to one aspect of Tagore’s philosophy: his vision of human nature and its relation to Nature and God; his views on interculturality and dialogue among cultures; the idea of universal education and its influence on modern educative institutions. Reading Tagore as an intercultural thinker, Jahanbegloo seeks to understand how he confronted violent and fanatic orders. He places an emphasis on Tagore’s social and political contributions, his dialogue with Gandhi and his approach to colonialism.Attempting to bring civilisations and cultures closer together, Tagore answered many of the intellectual, moral and spiritual crises of his time. His work has inspired writers and intellectuals from different parts of the world for more than a century. This far-reaching exploration of the many facets of Tagore’s multi-dimensional thoughts allows us to understand why.

What defines a philosophical tradition? The primacy of the written text and individual authorship are two major defining and interwoven credentials that have been used to deny African philosophical thought prior to the postcolonial phase. In this significant contribution to the search for identity and authenticity of African philosophy, Elvis Imafidon questions the relevance of authorship and textuality in the production, storage and transmission of knowledge. Drawing from the rich and robust philosophical heritages of sub-Saharan African traditions, he showcases the many non-textual and textual ways philosophy is collaboratively and intersubjectively done and critiqued.His focus is on two major repositories of philosophical knowledges: orality and symbolism. Storytelling, adages, names and naming, folklores, proverbs and forms of symbolically encoded knowledges found in artefacts, symbols, textile patterns, motifs and corporeal and performative arts contest dominant narratives. They ask us to rethink the logic of binaries between literacy and illiteracy, text and non-text, and speech and writing.Paying close attention to the Binis and Esans in Southern Nigeria, the Akans and Gas in Ghana, the Shonas in Zimbabwe, and the Zulu people in South Africa, Imafidon affirms the place of orality, symbolic art and different indigenous methods for philosophising. Exploring the concept of street philosophy in Nigeria, we see how oral and symbolic forms of philosophizing persist in modern African societies.This much-needed book reclaims the voices, agency and narratives of African thought across history revealing the deeply embedded intersubjective and ecocentric Intellegence, and enigmatics of African philosophy. It challenges our understanding of the discipline of Philosophy and argues for an inclusive definition of philosophy in our trans-human, trans-textual age.

Michael Nylan and Thomas Hahn open up new vistas for thinking ecologically in this introduction to ancient and modern thought in China. Together they explore the environment in the Chinese philosophical tradition and contemporary China through the lens of intergenerational justice. Nylan’s analysis of lesser known texts from ancient China changes our thinking of Chinese political philosophy and legal antiquity codes. Hahn’s comprehensive overview of recent data from China offers a response to the present crisis. Their original approach underscores why environmentalism is always more than a Western issue. By applying ancient ideas to an urgent topic with a unique emphasis on East Asia, this one-of-a-kind guide to environmental thought challenges standard narratives. It is essential reading for anyone looking to understand how classical Chinese concepts can provide the necessary tools to improve how we think about the world we live in.

Grounded in Japanese philosophy and ideas of non-duality and emptiness, this is a much-welcomed contribution to central issues in philosophy of education.Anton Sevilla-Liu uses the thought of ethicist Watsuji Tetsuro (1889-1960) and philosopher of education Mori Akira (1915-1976) to address the dangers of self-centeredness and conformism in a competitive education system. When individual performance is encouraged, is there a way to stress relationality without losing the sense of individuality and uniqueness?We are introduced to Watsuji and Mori’s enlightening views of education, deeply rooted in spiritual insights that originate in Buddhism and Confucianism while engaging human sciences. By applying their theories to educational practices, Sevilla-Liu shows how to connect students' creative potential with a dynamic sense of community. Importantly, alongside this active philosophy, he introduces Watsuji and Mori’s central concept of letting go of our self-centeredness, fixed roles, attachments to sensations, and rigid ideas. We see how the philosophy of emptiness can positively impact educational practices.This engaging book outlines a vision of education that balances individual creativity with a sense of community, responding to real challenges in educational systems around the world. It is the ideal starting point for educators and students interested in Japanese ideas about learning and unlearning, doing and letting-go, and the unique dynamicity of the philosophy of emptiness.

Bringing together a broad range of contributors including art, architecture, and design academic theorists and historians, in addition to practicing artists, architects, and designers, this volume explores the place of the sketchbook in contemporary art and architecture. Drawing upon a diverse range of theories, practices, and reflections common to the contemporary conceptualisation of the sketchbook and its associated environments, it offers a dialogue in which the sketchbook can be understood as a pivotal working tool that contributes to the creative process and the formulation and production of visual ideas. Along with exploring the theoretical, philosophical, psychological, and curatorial implications of the sketchbook, the book addresses emergent digital practices by way of examining contemporary developments in sketchbook productions and pedagogical applications. Consequently, these more recent developments question the validity of the sketchbook as both an instrument of practice and creativity, and as an educational device. International in scope, it not only explores European intellectual and artistic traditions, but also intercultural and cross-cultural perspectives, including reviews of practices in Chinese artworks or Islamic calligraphy, and situational contexts that deal with historical examples, such as Roman art, or modern practices in geographical-cultural regions like Pakistan.