Edinburgh Studies in Classical Islamic History and Culture – serie

The balsam of Matarea was a substance famous as a panacea among physicians in the Middle East and Europe during the Antique and Medieval periods. It was used in many aspects of medieval life and is associated with figures such as the Virgin Mary, Jesus Christ, King Solomon, the Queen of Sheba and Cleopatra. The story of this substance takes the reader into the political life of the medieval Mediterranean and Middle East, and back into the ancient history of Palestine. Using written sources, visual data and archaeological material, Marcus Milwright reconstructs the fascinating cultural history of the balsam tree: from Jericho and En-Gedi to Egypt, and from ancient times to the 17th century. Miwright addresses the symbolic associations of balsam and the site of Matarea (where the last balsam tree died in 1615), the distribution of products from the tree through trade and diplomacy, and the applications balsam products in medicine, ritual and the domestic environment.

Explores the problem of anthropomorphism: a major bone of contention in 8th to 14th-century Islamic theologyMore than any other issue in Islamic theology, anthropomorphism (tashbih) stood at the heart of many theological debates, and was mostly discussed within the circles of traditionalist Islam. The way a scholar interpreted the anthropomorphic descriptions of God in the Qur'an or the Hadith (for instance, God's hand, God's laughter or God's sitting on the heavenly throne) often reflected his political and social stature, as well as his theological affinity. This book presents an in-depth literary analysis of the textual and non-textual elements of a?adith al-?ifat the traditions that depict God and His attributes in an anthropomorphic language. It goes on to discuss the inner controversies in the prominent traditionalistic learning centres of the Islamic world regarding the way to understand and interpret these anthropomorphic traditions. Through a close, contextualized, and interdisciplinary reading in Hadith compilations, theological treatises, and historical sources, this book offers an evaluation and understanding of the traditionalistic endeavours to define anthropomorphism in the most crucial and indeed most formative period of Islamic thought.Key FeaturesIncludes case studies of anthropomorphic traditions, tribal heritage and lore, the Hashwiyya and the traditionalistsExplores non-textual elements in the anthropomorphic traditions (including body-gestures and mimicry)Studies rhetorical devices and rationalized argumentations in the writings of traditionalist theologiansProvides the first in-depth literary and linguistic analysis of the anthropomorphic material in the Hadith

In the 12th – 14th centuries, Sufism (‘Islamic mysticism’) became extraordinarily popular across Egypt. Elites and non-elites, rulers and ruled, the wealthy and the poor, even Jews, all embraced a variety of Sufi ideas and practices. This book is the first systematic investigation of how and why this popularisation occurred. It surveys several Sufi groups, from different regions of Egypt, and details how each of them promulgated, performed, and popularised their specific Sufi doctrines and practices. This popularisation would have a profound impact on the Egyptian religious landscape and on the subsequent history of Islam more broadly.

This imaginative and accessible study of the lyrical, humorous, social and educational aspects of classical Persian poetry focuses on the works of the master medieval poet Sa‘di of Shiraz (d. 1291), one of the funniest, most influential and lyrical figures in classical Persian poetry. Sa’di, a prominent ethicist and a devout teacher of virtues, stands out for his worldliness, his practical teachings, and his love for living a wholesome life, as well as for his signature elegance and artistry that has compelled critics to call his lyrics perfectly polished diamonds.In a language deliberately free of technical jargon, Keshavarz argues for the versatility of Sa‘di’s poetic voice and portrays his notion of love as open to multiple perspectives including homoerotic aesthetics. She brings to life the worldly wisdom that kept the lyrical, adventurous, and ethical legacy of Sa’di fresh and effective through the passage of time.

For more than one thousand years Arab medicine held sway in the ancient world, from the shores of Spain in the West to China, India and Sri Lanka (Ceylon) in the East. This book explores the impact of Greek (as well as Indian and Persian) medical heritage on the evolution of Arab medicine and pharmacology, investigating it from the perspective of materia medica – a reliable indication of the contribution of this medical legacy. Focusing on the main substances introduced and traded by the Arabs in the medieval Mediterranean – including Ambergris, camphor, musk, myrobalan, nutmeg, sandalwood and turmeric – the authors show how they enriched the existing inventory of drugs influenced by Galenic-Arab pharmacology. Further, they look at how these substances merged with the development and distribution of new technologies and industries that evolved in the Middle Ages such as textiles, paper, dyeing and tanning, and with the new trends, demands and fashions regarding spices, perfumes, ornaments (gemstones) and foodstuffs some of which can be found in our modern-day food basket.

This new and dynamic approach to the perennially fascinating subject of miracles adopts a strictly anthropological and phenomenological approach. Allowing the miracles to speak for themselves, Ian Richard Netton examines these phenomena in the Islamic and Christian traditions through the lens of narration. What are the stories of the miracles? What are the contexts which gave rise to these miracles and allowed them to garner belief and flourish? Perspectives covered include the views of believers and non-believers alike in these phenomena.Similarities and differences in content and approach are explored with a primary focus on the five main anthropological topoi of food, water, blood, wood and stone, and cosmology. A range of intertextual elements in both these Islamic and Christian traditions are discerned.

Situates the First Crusade and the formation of the Latin East within the broader framework of Syrian history Re-examines the pre and early Crusading period from a Syrian perspectivePresents a reassessment of the broad strategic picture in Syria at a vital point in the timeline of the Medieval Middle EastArgues that there was a perceptible military reaction from Syrian rulers to the arrival of the FranksProvides a new chronology for the erosion of Byzantine and Fatimid influence in the region during the late fifth/eleventh century and analyses the extent of Seljuq influenceBetween 1050 and 1128 the nomadic Seljuq Turks and European Crusaders subjected northern Syria to a series of invasions from the east and west. The migration of militant peoples from the Eurasian Steppe and Western Europe inserted a new set of political elites into a complex frontier zone already beset by numerous conflicts fought along several ethno-cultural and religious contours. Surveying this turbulent chapter of Syrian history from multiple perspectives, this book recalibrates the underlying power dynamics of the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries. Through this regional focus, it reassesses both the impact that the establishment of Turkish and Crusader lordships had upon bilad al-sham (Greater Syria) and the reactions of Syria's established ruling elite to this unprecedented sequence of events.Providing a unique reinterpretation of the political situation in bilad al-sham during one of the most important periods in Middle Eastern history, this book proposes a new model for understanding the political dynasties of this period and questions the significance ascribed to the establishment of the Crusader States by modern historians.

Between 1050 and 1128 the nomadic Seljuq Turks and European Crusaders subjected northern Syria to a series of invasions from the east and west. The migration of militant peoples from the Eurasian Steppe and Western Europe inserted a new set of political elites into a complex frontier zone already beset by numerous conflicts fought along several ethno-cultural and religious contours. Surveying this turbulent chapter of Syrian history from multiple perspectives, this book recalibrates the underlying power dynamics of the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries. Through this regional focus, it reassesses both the impact that the establishment of Turkish and Crusader lordships had upon bilad al-sham (Greater Syria) and the reactions of Syria's established ruling elite to this unprecedented sequence of events. Providing a unique reinterpretation of the political situation in bilad al-sham during one of the most important periods in Middle Eastern history, this book proposes a new model for understanding the political dynasties of this period and questions the significance ascribed to the establishment of the Crusader States by modern historians.

Tells the history of the precious balsam of Matarea: a substance traded for its weight in goldUses archaeological and textual sources to trace the cultivation of balsam trees from the 4th century BCE to the 17th century CESurveys the evidence for the symbolic value and practical applications of balsam in the Middle East, North Africa and EuropeEstablishes the many uses of balsam in pre-modern medicine, religious ritual and royal ceremoniesCorrelates modern botanical studies with historical sources in the identification of the trees that once grew in the plantation of Matarea in EgyptExplores the complex socio-cultural factors that contributed to the sense of value accorded to rare commoditiesRichly illustrated with over 50 line drawings, engravings, watercolours and photographs, drawn from sources ranging across time from medieval manuscripts to 20th-century photographs, depicting balsam trees, balsam resin receptacles, the compound of Matarea, maps and moreUsing written sources, visual data and archaeological material, Marcus Milwright reconstructs the fascinating cultural history of the balsam tree from Jericho and En-Gedi to Egypt, and from ancient times to the 17th century. Miwright addresses the symbolic associations of balsam and the site of Matarea (where the last balsam tree died in 1615), the distribution of products from the tree through trade and diplomacy, and the applications of these products in medicine, ritual and the domestic environment. He also establishes links with resin-producing trees from the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa.The balsam of Matarea was a substance famous as a panacea among physicians in the Middle East and Europe during the Antique and Medieval periods. It was used in many aspects of medieval life and is associated with figures such as the Virgin Mary, Jesus Christ, King Solomon, the Queen of Sheba and Cleopatra.

This book studies the relationship between political thought, preaching and emotions through the writings of Ibn al-Jawzi (d. 1201), a celebrated hortatory preacher in late-Abbasid Baghdad. Through an intertextual analysis of Ibn al-Jawzi's works in various genres, this book details how his ideal form of rulership reflected the emotional norms and pietistic moral virtues promoted in Muslim hortatory sermons. It also examines the emotional strategies deployed in his efforts to reform the rulers of his time. In highlighting the importance of piety in Ibn al-Jawzi's political discourses, the book points to a new reading of the history of Islamic political thought that, rather than foregrounding order and military prowess, considers competing political languages among medieval Muslim intellectuals. In doing so, it calls for the need to rethink notions of 'politics' and the 'political' when studying Islam.

Offers an in-depth study of the Umayyad Caliphate of al-Andalus in its primeProvides a comprehensive study of the caliphate of Cordoba based on the 'annals' by '?s b. A?mad al-R?z? and other Arab sources relating to the periodBrings together textual evidence with the archaeological record to produce a vivid description of the social formation of al-Andalus in this periodAnalyses the structure and operation of a centralised 'state' in the High Middle AgesExamines the legitimisation of power and authority in an Islamicate social formationOffers a rigorous study of the Caliphate of Cordoba, which is usually the subject of idealised views with little historical baseMakes accessible to English-speaking audiences the huge advance of recent historical studies on the Umayyad caliphateDuring the second half of the 10th/4th century, the Umayyad caliphate of al-Andalus became a powerful political formation in Western Europe. Described by the contemporary German nun Hrotsvitha as the 'ornament of the world', Cordoba was the destiny of embassies and traders coming from places as far away as Constantinople, the Ottoman empire and Italy. The zenith of this political supremacy coincided with the rule of al-?akam II (961-976 CE), whose name is associated with the enlargement of the mosque of Cordoba, the magnificent palatine city of Mad?nat al-Zahr?? and the rich caliphal library which housed Arab, Latin and Hebrew manuscripts.This book is based on an extraordinary source that had never been the subject of a comprehensive study: the annals written by an official and chronicler of the caliph's court, '?s b. A?mad al-R?z?, who carefully annotated the big and small events of the court. Used by Ibn ?ayy?n to compose one of the volumes of his celebrated Muqtabis, these 'annals' have come to us in a substantial fragment of more than 135 folia that cover the period from June 971 to July 975 CE. This source provides an eye-witness account of the caliphate, which describes with stunning detail all the events, characters, places and narratives of the Umayyad caliphate, and is a fundamental work in helping us to understand the configuration of the Mediterranean in the 10th century CE.

During the second half of the 10th/4th century, the Umayyad caliphate of al-Andalus became a powerful political formation in Western Europe. Described by the contemporary German nun Hrotsvitha as the 'ornament of the world', Cordoba was the destiny of embassies and traders coming from places as far away as Constantinople, the Ottoman empire and Italy. The zenith of this political supremacy coincided with the rule of al-?akam II (961-976 CE), whose name is associated with the enlargement of the mosque of Cordoba, the magnificent palatine city of Mad?nat al-Zahr?? and the rich caliphal library which housed Arab, Latin and Hebrew manuscripts. This book is based on an extraordinary source that had never been the subject of a comprehensive study: the annals written by an official and chronicler of the caliph's court, '?sa b. A?mad al-R?z?, who carefully annotated the big and small events of the court. Used by Ibn ?ayy?n to compose one of the volumes of his celebrated Muqtabis, these 'annals' have come to us in a substantial fragment of more than 135 folia that cover the period from June 971 to July 975 CE. This source provides an eye-witness account of the caliphate, which describes with stunning detail all the events, characters, places and narratives of the Umayyad caliphate, and is a fundamental work in helping us to understand the configuration of the Mediterranean in the 10th century CE.

In 680 CE al-?usayn ibn ?Al?, the grandson of the Prophet Mu?ammad, was killed in a battle at Karbala. Ancient accounts describe this event as a minor skirmish, similar to the numerous battles that were waged in the early history of Islam. Among Shi?ites, however, the story of the event soon developed into a narrative about a cosmic battle between the powers of universe, with al-?usayn personifying good and life-giving powers. The story came to epitomise the trauma that is at the heart of the Shi?ite ethos: the treachery of the non-Shi?ite community against the family of the Prophet.This book investigates this development in the 7th to 10th centuries CE and its significance for emerging Shi?ite identity in early Islam. It provides an in-depth analysis and diachronic comparison of the three earliest versions of the Karbala story, analyses the story of the Penitents who attempted to avenge the death of al-?usayn, and surveys the development of the image of al-?usayn and the rituals associated with him in historiography, poetry and Shi?ite hadith.

In 680 CE al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī, the grandson of the Prophet Muḥammad, was killed in a battle at Karbala. Ancient accounts describe this event as a minor skirmish, similar to the numerous battles that were waged in the early history of Islam. Among Shiʿites, however, the story of the event soon developed into a narrative about a cosmic battle between the powers of universe, with al-Ḥusayn personifying good and life-giving powers. The story came to epitomise the trauma that is at the heart of the Shiʿite ethos: the treachery of the non-Shiʿite community against the family of the Prophet.This book investigates this development in the 7th to 10th centuries CE and its significance for emerging Shiʿite identity in early Islam. It provides an in-depth analysis and diachronic comparison of the three earliest versions of the Karbala story, analyses the story of the Penitents who attempted to avenge the death of al-Ḥusayn, and surveys the development of the image of al-Ḥusayn and the rituals associated with him in historiography, poetry and Shiʿite hadith.

When we speak of 'Islamic societies' or 'Islamic civilisation', we often imply that there is something distinctive about cultures wherever Islam is prominent. Yet historians have rarely examined in detail how these cultures that we call 'Islamic' were formed in relation to neighbouring ones. This volume addresses that gap by focusing on cultural brokerage: the process by which an individual mediates between different cultural spheres, transferring and translating ideas, practices and institutions across boundaries, often with lasting effects. The collection proposes a robust, historically grounded theory of cultural brokerage and demonstrates its significance for understanding the formation and evolution of culture in Islamic societies. It illustrates this theory with empirical case studies that range from early Islamic Egypt to early modern China, and from spheres as diverse as medicine, theology and art.

Between Rebels and Rulers in the Early Islamicate World offers the first dedicated examination of the phenomenon of rebellion across the early Islamicate world. It combines discourse analysis with a return to long-neglected social-historical analysis in its study of contention and the ways in which it was narrated and enacted. These approaches are pursued through fourteen case studies, ranging geographically from North Africa to Central Asia and chronologically from the sixth to tenth centuries CE. These diverse examples reveal several patterns: First, rebellion operated as a normative means of negotiating power and obtaining justice. Second, the main constituencies of rebellion were local elites, both Muslims and non-Muslims, Arabs and members of pre-conquest societies, separately or together. Accordingly, this volume challenges the 'othering' of rebels found in written sources and reflected in scholarship and reframes them and their discourses as integral parts of an imperial system. Third, social ties provided a framework for the mobilisation of rebellious constituencies and the resolution of conflict.

Between Rebels and Rulers in the Early Islamicate World offers the first dedicated examination of the phenomenon of rebellion across the early Islamicate world. It combines discourse analysis with a return to long-neglected social-historical analysis in its study of contention and the ways in which it was narrated and enacted. These approaches are pursued through fourteen case studies, ranging geographically from North Africa to Central Asia and chronologically from the sixth to tenth centuries CE. These diverse examples reveal several patterns: first, rebellion operated as a normative means of negotiating power and obtaining justice. Secondly, the main constituencies of rebellion were local elites, both Muslims and non-Muslims, Arabs and members of pre-conquest societies, separately or together. Accordingly, this volume challenges the ‘othering’ of rebels found in written sources and reflected in scholarship and reframes them and their discourses as integral parts of an imperial system. And thirdly, this book shows how social ties provided a framework for the mobilisation of rebellious constituencies and the resolution of conflict.

For most historic Arabic authors, creating new works began with reusing existing ones. They reissued, abbreviated, expanded upon, excerpted and otherwise mined their predecessors’ texts as they created fresh new works. In the process, authors produced an enormously intertextual tradition. To reconstruct these relations, the KITAB (Knowledge, Information Technology, and the Arabic Book) project built a digital corpus of thousands of early Arabic books, written over eight centuries from Iberia to Central and South Asia. The team then utilised a text reuse detection algorithm to create an original dataset that documents near-verbatim relationships among all of these books.This volume investigates the broad patterns from the dataset and forensically analyses individual writers’ practices to see how their reuse of earlier works made the Arabic tradition. Using the tools, methods and approaches of the digital humanities, it aims to inspire scholars of all world literatures to investigate the origins and growth of written traditions in novel ways.

This book is one of two volumes presenting the results of the KITAB (Knowledge, Information Technology, and the Arabic Book) project and their application of text reuse detection to a digital corpus of thousands of Arabic texts spanning eight centuries. The authors begin by examining the function of text reuse in ensuring the survival of books, highlighting the perspectives of individual authors as well as the effect of regional chronological conditions on memories of the past. The second half then goes on to show how memorialisation and recycling of communal texts (such as annals, legal compendia and biographical collections) served to create a shared idea of the past and to sustain a social group’s memories and identity.Using the KITAB project's expansive digital corpus, this book analyses case studies that span North Africa and the Middle East and the Indian Ocean: from the Ismaʿili communities of India, Yemen and northwestern Syria, to Egyptian courts, to Mālikī scholars in North Africa. Altogether, this volume aims to demonstrate the huge potential for digital study of written traditions alongside traditional methods of close reading and manuscript studies, and provide templates for similar studies within Arabic literature and beyond.

This study explores the distinctive features of Fatimid ideology and propaganda, as demonstrated in the largest and most notable mosque of this era, built in Cairo during the Fatimid period (909-1171 AD). It specifically examines the numerous Quranic inscriptions decorating various parts of the mosque. These inscriptions are scrutinized in light of Arabic theosophic writings from the same period. This study also highlights the mosque's significance as a primary medium for Fatimid propaganda (da'wa), aimed at disseminating Fatimid religious ideology throughout the Islamic world. A substantial part of this work is dedicated to the figure of Imam al-??kim, who played a key role in the completion of the mosque bearing his name and was revered as a divine representative on Earth.

This study explores the distinctive features of Fatimid ideology and propaganda, as demonstrated in the largest and most notable mosque of this era, built in Cairo during the Fatimid period (909-1171 AD). It specifically examines the numerous Quranic inscriptions decorating various parts of the mosque. These inscriptions are scrutinized in light of Arabic theosophic writings from the same period. This study also highlights the mosque's significance as a primary medium for Fatimid propaganda (da’wa), aimed at disseminating Fatimid religious ideology throughout the Islamic world. A substantial part of this work is dedicated to the figure of Imam al-Ḥākim, who played a key role in the completion of the mosque bearing his name and was revered as a divine representative on Earth.

This imaginative and accessible study of the lyrical, humorous, social and educational aspects of classical Persian poetry focuses on the works of the master medieval poet Sa‘di of Shiraz (d. 1291), one of the funniest, most influential and lyrical figures in classical Persian poetry. Sa’di, a prominent ethicist and a devout teacher of virtues, stands out for his worldliness, his practical teachings, and his love for living a wholesome life, as well as for his signature elegance and artistry that has compelled critics to call his lyrics perfectly polished diamonds.In a language deliberately free of technical jargon, Keshavarz argues for the versatility of Sa‘di’s poetic voice and portrays his notion of love as open to multiple perspectives including homoerotic aesthetics. She brings to life the worldly wisdom that kept the lyrical, adventurous, and ethical legacy of Sa’di fresh and effective through the passage of time.

This book examines the life and work of Rashid al-Din Tabib (d. 1318), the most powerful statesman working for the Mongol Ilkhans in the Middle East. It begins with an overview of administrative history and historiography in the early Ilkhanate, culminating with Rashid al-Din’s Blessed History of Ghazan, the indispensable source for Mongol and Ilkhanid history. Later chapters lay out the results of the most comprehensive study to date of the manuscripts of Rashid al-Din’s historical writing. The complicated relationship between Rashid al-Din’s historical and theological writings is also explored, as well as his appropriation of the work of his contemporary historian, `Abd Allah Qashani.

Based on original and previously unexamined sources, this book provides a critical and systematic analysis of the role of women, mothers, wives, eunuchs, concubines, qahramans and atabegs in the dynamics and manipulation of medieval Islamic politics. Spanning over 600 years, Taef El-Azhari explores gender and sexual politics and power: from the time of the Prophet Muhammad through the Umayyad and Abbasid periods to the Mamluks in the 15th century, and from Iran and Central Asia to North Africa and Spain.

This book traces the journey of new Muslims as they joined the early Islamic community and articulated their identities within it. It focuses on Muslims of slave origins, who belonged to the society in which they lived but whose slave background rendered them somehow alien. How did these Muslims at the crossroads of insider and outsider find their place in early Islamic society? How did Islamic society itself change to accommodate these new members? By analysing how these liminal Muslims resolved the tension between belonging and otherness, Conquered Populations in Early Islam reveals the shifting boundaries of the early Islamic community and celebrates the dynamism of Islamic history.

Explores the impact of drugs introduced by the Arabs on medieval Mediterranean medicineFor more than one thousand years Arab medicine held sway in the ancient world, from the shores of Spain in the West to China, India and Sri Lanka (Ceylon) in the East. This book explores the impact of Greek (as well as Indian and Persian) medical heritage on the evolution of Arab medicine and pharmacology, investigating it from the perspective of 'materia medica' a reliable indication of the contribution of this medical legacy.Focusing on the main substances introduced and traded by the Arabs in the medieval Mediterranean including Ambergris, camphor, musk, myrobalan, nutmeg, sandalwood and turmeric the authors show how they enriched the existing inventory of drugs influenced by Galenic-Arab pharmacology. Further, they look at how these substances merged with the development and distribution of new technologies and industries that evolved in the Middle Ages such as textiles, paper, dyeing and tanning, and with the new trends, demands and fashions regarding spices, perfumes, ornaments (gemstones) and foodstuffs some of which can be found in our modern-day food basket.Key FeaturesAssesses the assimilation of theoretical and practical Greek, Indian and Persian medicine into Arabic medical cultureReconstructs and presents a list of medicinal substances distributed by the Arabs as a result of their conquestsTells the stories of 33 new Arabic drugs within the context of their natural historyDescribes the contribution of the Arabs to the daily medieval cultural material (medicine, cosmetics, perfumery, dyeing of materials, industrial products and precious stones)Includes 35 colour illustrations

Transforming our understanding of Persian art, this impressive interdisciplinary book decodes some of the world’s most exquisite medieval paintings. It reveals the hidden meaning behind enigmatic figures and scenes that have puzzled modern scholars, focusing on five ‘miniature’ paintings. Chad Kia shows how the cryptic elements in these works of art from Timurid Persia conveyed the mystical teachings of Sufi poets like Rumi, Attar and Jami, and heralded one of the most significant events in the history of Islam: the takeover by the Safavids in 1501 and the conversion of Iran to Shiism.

Transforming our understanding of Persian art, this impressive interdisciplinary book decodes some of the world’s most exquisite medieval paintings. It reveals the hidden meaning behind enigmatic figures and scenes that have puzzled modern scholars, focusing on five ‘miniature’ paintings. Chad Kia shows how the cryptic elements in these works of art from Timurid Persia conveyed the mystical teachings of Sufi poets like Rumi, Attar and Jami, and heralded one of the most significant events in the history of Islam: the takeover by the Safavids in 1501 and the conversion of Iran to Shiism.