NATO Science Series II: Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry – serie

One of the most important issues in the construction of future magnetic confinement fusion machines is that of the materials of which they are constructed, and one of the key points of proper material choice is the recycle of hydrogen isotopes with materials at the plasma face. Tritium machines demand high safety and economy, which in turn requires the lowest possible T inventory and smallest possible permeation through the plasma facing materials. The recycle behaviour of the in-vessel components must also be known if the plasma reaction is to be predictable and controllable, and finally, the fuel cycle and plasma operating regimes may be actively controlled by special materials and methods. This book discusses both laboratory experiments exploring the basic properties of non-equilibrium hydrogen-solid systems (diffusion, absorption, boundary processes) and experimental results obtained from existing fusion machines under conditions simulating future situations to some extent. Contributions are from experts in the fields of nuclear fusion, materials science, surface science, vacuum science and technology, and solid state physics.

One of the most important issues in the construction of future magnetic confinement fusion machines is that of the materials of which they are constructed, and one of the key points of proper material choice is the recycle of hydrogen isotopes with materials at the plasma face. Tritium machines demand high safety and economy, which in turn requires the lowest possible T inventory and smallest possible permeation through the plasma facing materials. The recycle behaviour of the in-vessel components must also be known if the plasma reaction is to be predictable and controllable, and finally, the fuel cycle and plasma operating regimes may be actively controlled by special materials and methods. This book discusses both laboratory experiments exploring the basic properties of non-equilibrium hydrogen-solid systems (diffusion, absorption, boundary processes) and experimental results obtained from existing fusion machines under conditions simulating future situations to some extent. Contributions are from experts in the fields of nuclear fusion, materials science, surface science, vacuum science and technology, and solid state physics.

Silicon dioxide plays a central role in most contemporary electronic and photonic technologies, from fibre optics for communications and medical applications to metal-oxide-semiconductor devices. Many of these applications directly involve point defects, which can either be introduced during the manufacturing process or by exposure to ionizing radiation. They can also be deliberately created to exploit new technologies. This book provides a general description of the influence that point defects have on the global properties of the bulk material and their spectroscopic characterization through ESR and optical spectroscopy.

Silicon dioxide plays a central role in most contemporary electronic and photonic technologies, from fiber optics for communications and medical applications to metal-oxide-semiconductor devices. Many of these applications directly involve point defects, which can either be introduced during the manufacturing process or by exposure to ionizing radiation. They can also be deliberately created to exploit new technologies. This book provides a general description of the influence that point defects have on the global properties of the bulk material and their spectroscopic characterization through ESR and optical spectroscopy.

In the United States alone, more commercial explosives are consumed in one month than the entire quantity of explosives consumed during WWII. Vast quantities of propellants and explosives are stored in military bunkers: the amount of small arms ammunition alone is sufficient to kill the entire population of the planet several times over. So the idea of using excess military propellants and explosives as ingredients in commercial products would seem to be attractive. Cost, however, remains the overriding factor: even if military materials are supplied for free, their introduction into commercial products presents a significant economic challenge, if they are to compete with ammonium nitrate-based materials. Other problems are technical, regulatory, and applications in nature. All are discussed here in frank and open detail, by some of the world's leading experts.

In the United States alone, more commercial explosives are consumed in one month than the entire quantity of explosives consumed during WWII. Vast quantities of propellants and explosives are stored in military bunkers: the amount of small arms ammunition alone is sufficient to kill the entire population of the planet several times over. So the idea of using excess military propellants and explosives as ingredients in commercial products would seem to be attractive. Cost, however, remains the overriding factor: even if military materials are supplied for free, their introduction into commercial products presents a significant economic challenge, if they are to compete with ammonium nitrate-based materials. Other problems are technical, regulatory, and applications in nature. All are discussed here in frank and open detail, by some of the world's leading experts.

A detailed presentation of the major role played by correctly designed and fabricated joints in the safe and reliable response of steel, composite and timber structures. The typology/morphology of connections is discussed for both conventional pinned and rigid joints and semi-rigid types. All relevant topics are comprehensively surveyed: definitions, classification, and influence of joint behaviour on overall structural response. Also presented are the application of the component method, the notion of rotational capacity, the local ductility of different types of earthquake-resistant structural joints as determined in cyclic experiments, numerical techniques for the realistic simulation of joint response, simple and moment-resistant structural connections.

An understanding of magnetostriction is important for a range of technologically and scientifically important materials. This book covers bulk and thin film magnetostrictive materials, superconductors and oxides. The role of magnetostriction in determining or influencing the physical properties is discussed in depth and wide-ranging reference lists are provided for further study. Contributors have provided both tutorial material and discussions.

An understanding of magnetostriction is important for a range of technologically and scientifically important materials. This book covers bulk and thin film magnetostrictive materials, superconductors and oxides. The role of magnetostriction in determining or influencing the physical properties is discussed in depth and wide-ranging reference lists are provided for further study. Contributors have provided both tutorial material and discussions.

This text points out directions for future research in such different subjects as photonic band gap crystals, semiconductor quantum dot and wire lasers, silicon optoelectronics, carbon-based nanostructure physics, polymer based nano-composite and quantum wires, DNA nano-technology and silicon bio-compatibility, nano-scale optical characterisation, spray and cluster deposition, self assembly, imprint technology, quantum computing and quantum dot-based computation.

This text points out directions for future research in such different subjects as photonic band gap crystals, semiconductor quantum dot and wire lasers, silicon optoelectronics, carbon-based nanostructure physics, polymer based nano-composite and quantum wires, DNA nano-technology and silicon bio-compatibility, nano-scale optical characterisation, spray and cluster deposition, self assembly, imprint technology, quantum computing and quantum dot-based computation.

Topology optimization of structures and composite materials is a new and rapidly expanding field of mechanics which is now coming to play a major role in most branches of engineering, such as aerospace, mechanical, structural, civil and materials. There are also significant implications for energy production and the building and material sciences. It a truly "high-tech" field, requiring advanced computer facilities and computational methods, while involving unusual theoretical considerations in pure mathematics. Topology optimization deals with some of the most intractable problems in the mechanical sciences, but is also of considerable practical interest in that it can achieve far greater savings than conventional (sizing or shape) optimization. Extensive research into topology optimization is being conducted in most developed countries. The present book describes the state of the art, bringing together researchers from a diversity of backgrounds: mathematicians, information scientists, aerospace, automotive, mechanical, structural and civil engineers.

Topology optimization of structures and composite materials is a new and rapidly expanding field of mechanics which is now coming to play a major role in most branches of engineering, such as aerospace, mechanical, structural, civil and materials. There are also significant implications for energy production and the building and material sciences. It a truly "high-tech" field, requiring advanced computer facilities and computational methods, while involving unusual theoretical considerations in pure mathematics. Topology optimization deals with some of the most intractable problems in the mechanical sciences, but is also of considerable practical interest in that it can achieve far greater savings than conventional (sizing or shape) optimization. Extensive research into topology optimization is being conducted in most developed countries. The present book describes the state of the art, bringing together researchers from a diversity of backgrounds: mathematicians, information scientists, aerospace, automotive, mechanical, structural and civil engineers.

What is a supermaterial? A concise definition is by no means obvious, but a clue can be obtained from the topics discussed here. In addition to superconductors, the reader will encounter magnetic effects of many kinds, including giant and even colossal ones, organic conductors, photoconductors, and even 400-year-old Japanese ceramics. Processing is a prominent pursuit in supermaterials research, especially but not exclusively of the superconductors. The papers on characterization and theory break new ground, particularly in pursuit of new optoelectronic phenomena. The parade of new materials recently synthesized, often containing four or more elements, is surprising. But it is in it reporting of new applications that the book stands out: from circuits to sensors, supermaterials are making their impact on society.

What is a supermaterial? A concise definition is by no means obvious, but a clue can be obtained from the topics discussed here. In addition to superconductors, the reader will encounter magnetic effects of many kinds, including giant and even colossal ones, organic conductors, photoconductors, and even 400-year-old Japanese ceramics. Processing is a prominent pursuit in supermaterials research, especially but not exclusively of the superconductors. The papers on characterization and theory break new ground, particularly in pursuit of new optoelectronic phenomena. The parade of new materials recently synthesized, often containing four or more elements, is surprising. But it is in it reporting of new applications that the book stands out: from circuits to sensors, supermaterials are making their impact on society.

The particular interest represented in this state-of-the art survey of amorphous materials is their electronic properties and device applications. The book is organized in five sections, starting with some more unusual aspects of structure. Section 2 deals with the area of self organization in glasses and how this relates to a glass`s rigidity. The next section surveys electronic states and transport phenomena. The fourth section deals with an area of photo-induced effects that has recently seen increased interest due to possible device applications. Finally, section 5 covers some properties specific to amorphous silicon and amorphous carbon.

The particular interest represented in this state-of-the art survey of amorphous materials is their electronic properties and device applications. The book is organized in five sections, starting with some more unusual aspects of structure. Section 2 deals with the area of self organization in glasses and how this relates to a glass`s rigidity. The next section surveys electronic states and transport phenomena. The fourth section deals with an area of photo-induced effects that has recently seen increased interest due to possible device applications. Finally, section 5 covers some properties specific to amorphous silicon and amorphous carbon.

The state-of-the art of tribology is described, on both macro and micro/nano scales, by internationally recognized scientists working on both fundamental and applied aspects. The history of the subject is covered, followed by instrumentation, basic theories and the latest results on friction, wear, lubrication and industrial applications. Both experimental and computer modelling research are covered, with the emphasis throughout being on applied aspects. The book covers science and engineering topics that are not typically available to students in any structured university curriculum or special course.

The state-of-the art of tribology is described, on both macro and micro/nano scales, by internationally recognized scientists working on both fundamental and applied aspects. The history of the subject is covered, followed by instrumentation, basic theories and the latest results on friction, wear, lubrication and industrial applications. Both experimental and computer modelling research are covered, with the emphasis throughout being on applied aspects. The book covers science and engineering topics that are not typically available to students in any structured university curriculum or special course.

The particular emphasis of this book is on new approaches to the notch effect problem in fatigue and fracture, and in particular the volumetric approach. These new methods are introduced in an attempt to replace the hot spot method, which suffers from some degree of empiricism. The work has given rise to a new field: notch fracture mechanics, in which a crack is considered as a particular case of a notch. Theoretical and practical aspects are presented in both fracture and fatigue. Special attention is paid to welded joints. This work is particularly recommended to engineers involved in safety design. Readers should possess adequate skill in strength of materials and fracture mechanics.

The particular emphasis of this book is on new approaches to the notch effect problem in fatigue and fracture, and in particular the volumetric approach. These new methods are introduced in an attempt to replace the hot spot method, which suffers from some degree of empiricism. The work has given rise to a new field: notch fracture mechanics, in which a crack is considered as a particular case of a notch. Theoretical and practical aspects are presented in both fracture and fatigue. Special attention is paid to welded joints. This work is particularly recommended to engineers involved in safety design. Readers should possess adequate skill in strength of materials and fracture mechanics.

Super-intense laser pulses produce electric field strength peak values of the order of 1016-1018 W/cm2 in the infrared. The interaction of such fields with an atomic system (for example, atom, molecule, cluster), gives rise to highly non-linear processes such as the emission of very fast ions or the production of coherent X-radiation. Such processes have important applications in many different fields, such as biology or nuclear fusion. The latest research in the area is described here, concentrating on: the double ionization of complex atoms; the ionisation and dissociation dynamics of molecules; the interaction of clusters with very intense, femtosecond laser pulses; the production of very intense, coherent short wavelength radiation; stabilization and relativistic effects in super-strong fields; Rydberg atoms and strong field coherent control.

Super-intense laser pulses produce electric field strength peak values of the order of 1016-1018 W/cm2 in the infrared. The interaction of such fields with an atomic system (for example, atom, molecule, cluster), gives rise to highly non-linear processes such as the emission of very fast ions or the production of coherent X-radiation. Such processes have important applications in many different fields, such as biology or nuclear fusion. The latest research in the area is described here, concentrating on: the double ionization of complex atoms; the ionization and dissociation dynamics of molecules; the interaction of clusters with very intense, femtosecond laser pulses; the production of very intense, coherent short wavelength radiation; stabilization and relativistic effects in super-strong fields; Rydberg atoms and strong field coherent control.

Atomically dispersed metal cations and small polyatomic cationic structures co-ordinated to the surface of porous matrices exhibit different properties from the same cationic species contained in a bulk oxide or supported on amorphous carriers. This subject is treated to an extensive review, showing how an understanding of it is essential to the development of a new generation of solid catalysts. There are also opportunities to shape the catalytic properties of the transition metal cations in microporous and mesoporous matrices. The book covers both theoretical and experimental aspects, including the distribution of framework Al atoms in Si-rich zeolites, distribution and siting of charge-exchanged metal cations, electronic, adsorptive and catalytic properties of metal cations, and correlation of metal cation structure and siting with catalytic activity.

Atomically dispersed metal cations and small polyatomic cationic structures co-ordinated to the surface of porous matrices exhibit different properties from the same cationic species contained in a bulk oxide or supported on amorphous carriers. This subject is treated to an extensive review, showing how an understanding of it is essential to the development of a new generation of solid catalysts. There are also opportunities to shape the catalytic properties of the transition metal cations in microporous and mesoporous matrices. The book covers both theoretical and experimental aspects, including the distribution of framework Al atoms in Si-rich zeolites, distribution and siting of charge-exchanged metal cations, electronic, adsorptive and catalytic properties of metal cations, and correlation of metal cation structure and siting with catalytic activity.

The quarternary rare-earth transition-metal borocarbides are a new class of magnetic superconductors, discovered in 1994. This book contains a detailed description of the theoretical approaches used to explain the properties of these systems, with their array of magnetic and superconducting properties. The borocarbides are located in their context among the other magnetic or superconducting systems, especially the magnetic superconductors, and the book shows how our understanding has grown impressively due to the combination of a wide range of high quality samples and advanced measurement techniques. A number of important aspects nevertheless remain to be investigated, and these are outlined especially in the last part of the book.

The quarternary rare-earth transition-metal borocarbides are a new class of magnetic superconductors, discovered in 1994. This book contains a detailed description of the theoretical approaches used to explain the properties of these systems, with their array of magnetic and superconducting properties. The borocarbides are located in their context among the other magnetic or superconducting systems, especially the magnetic superconductors, and the book shows how our understanding has grown impressively due to the combination of a wide range of high quality samples and advanced measurement techniques. A number of important aspects nevertheless remain to be investigated, and these are outlined especially in the last part of the book.

In the last decade it has become increasingly evident that strong correla- tions between electrons are an essential and unifying factor in such diverse phenomena within solid state physics as high-temperature superconductivity, colossal magnetoresistance, the quantum Hall effect, heavy-fermion metals and Coulomb blockade in single-electron transistors. A new paradigmofnon- FermiLiquidbehaviourisalsoemergingand, inanumberofsystems, replacing the Fermi liquid, which has been the cornerstone ofthe physics of metals and superconductors for the pastdecades. In spite of major achievements, the theoretical studies and understanding of strongly-correlated electrons seems to be still in its infancy. Anomalous electron properties have been studied in some generic models of correlated electrons, such as the Hubbard and t-J models, the Anderson and Kondo impurity models, and their lattice equivalents. New insights into the behaviour of these, and related models is emerging from the introduction of powerful numerical methods to study such many-body models, including approximate techniquesofmany-body theory and exactresults inlow-andhigh-dimensional systems.Theseall showconvincingevidenceforbreakdownoftheFermiliquid concept. The Bled workshop focused on several major open questions in the theory of anomalous metals with correlated electrons. These theoretical advances were complemented by the latest experimental results in related materials, presented by leading experimentalists in the field. The main emphasis was on the following topics: - physics ofcuprates and high-temperature superconductors, - charge- and spin-ordering and fluctuations, - manganites and colossal magnetoresistance, - low-dimensional systems and transport, - Mott-Hubbard transition and infinite dimensional systems, - quantum Hall effect.

In the last decade it has become increasingly evident that strong correla- tions between electrons are an essential and unifying factor in such diverse phenomena within solid state physics as high-temperature superconductivity, colossal magnetoresistance, the quantum Hall effect, heavy-fermion metals and Coulomb blockade in single-electron transistors. A new paradigmofnon- FermiLiquidbehaviourisalsoemergingand, inanumberofsystems, replacing the Fermi liquid, which has been the cornerstone ofthe physics of metals and superconductors for the pastdecades. In spite of major achievements, the theoretical studies and understanding of strongly-correlated electrons seems to be still in its infancy. Anomalous electron properties have been studied in some generic models of correlated electrons, such as the Hubbard and t-J models, the Anderson and Kondo impurity models, and their lattice equivalents. New insights into the behaviour of these, and related models is emerging from the introduction of powerful numerical methods to study such many-body models, including approximate techniquesofmany-body theory and exactresults inlow-andhigh-dimensional systems.Theseall showconvincingevidenceforbreakdownoftheFermiliquid concept. The Bled workshop focused on several major open questions in the theory of anomalous metals with correlated electrons. These theoretical advances were complemented by the latest experimental results in related materials, presented by leading experimentalists in the field. The main emphasis was on the following topics: - physics ofcuprates and high-temperature superconductors, - charge- and spin-ordering and fluctuations, - manganites and colossal magnetoresistance, - low-dimensional systems and transport, - Mott-Hubbard transition and infinite dimensional systems, - quantum Hall effect.