Religion in the Modern World - Böcker

A powerful theological critique of neoliberalism and contemporary capitalism and its corrosive effects on human dignity and social justice. Writing from Latin America's liberationist tradition and his position as a theologian in Brazil, Sung argues that neoliberal economics has not only created unprecedented inequality, but also birthed a new cultural myth: that the market is sacred. Drawing on biblical faith, Catholic social teaching, and real-world examples from around the globe, and providing lucid descriptions of contributions from key economists and liberation theologians, he challenges the modern separation between faith and economics, calling instead for a renewed commitment to human rights and the Church’s option for the poor. Sung’s central claim is provocative and urgent: the worship of money in today’s world is a form of idolatry that contradicts both the gospel and reason. The Church must reject neutrality, he writes, and speak prophetically on behalf of the excluded. Originally published in Portuguese, this English translation brings to a wider audience a passionate, accessible, and intellectually rich argument that faith and reason demand action in the face of systemic injustice.

A powerful theological critique of neoliberalism and contemporary capitalism and its corrosive effects on human dignity and social justice. Writing from Latin America's liberationist tradition and his position as a theologian in Brazil, Sung argues that neoliberal economics has not only created unprecedented inequality, but also birthed a new cultural myth: that the market is sacred. Drawing on biblical faith, Catholic social teaching, and real-world examples from around the globe, and providing lucid descriptions of contributions from key economists and liberation theologians, he challenges the modern separation between faith and economics, calling instead for a renewed commitment to human rights and the Church’s option for the poor. Sung’s central claim is provocative and urgent: the worship of money in today’s world is a form of idolatry that contradicts both the gospel and reason. The Church must reject neutrality, he writes, and speak prophetically on behalf of the excluded. Originally published in Portuguese, this English translation brings to a wider audience a passionate, accessible, and intellectually rich argument that faith and reason demand action in the face of systemic injustice.

In the Bible, there is a drama of defining who are truly God's people—and who are not. Using an array of biblical texts from both the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament, Not God's People explores how ancient Jews and Christians created their own identity in relation to others. The book analyzes how biblical texts define 'us' and 'them,' how these texts differ in the way they define group identity, and how this process continues to be re-created by Jews and Christians today. Not God's People asks questions such as: How is the outsider defined? Is the ideal insider defined as the opposite of the outsider? It follows up with related questions such as: How were these definitions of 'we' and 'other' in the ancient communities used by later Jews and Christians? Are the processes of community and enemy formation found in the Bible exhibited in most other cultures as well? Not God's People ultimately shows that though the Bible's definitions of the insider and outsider changes dramatically over time, the process are enduring, and eternally true.

In the Bible, there is a drama of defining who are truly God's people—and who are not. Using an array of biblical texts from both the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament, Not God's People explores how ancient Jews and Christians created their own identity in relation to others. The book analyzes how biblical texts define 'us' and 'them,' how these texts differ in the way they define group identity, and how this process continues to be re-created by Jews and Christians today. Not God's People asks questions such as: How is the outsider defined? Is the ideal insider defined as the opposite of the outsider? It follows up with related questions such as: How were these definitions of 'we' and 'other' in the ancient communities used by later Jews and Christians? Are the processes of community and enemy formation found in the Bible exhibited in most other cultures as well? Not God's People ultimately shows that though the Bible's definitions of the insider and outsider changes dramatically over time, the process are enduring, and eternally true.

The New Testament is filled with stories of Jesus eating with people—from extravagant wedding banquets to simple meals of loaves and fishes. The Food and Feasts of Jesus offers a new perspective on life in biblical times by taking readers inside these meals. Food production and distribution impacted all aspects of ancient life, including the teachings of Jesus. From elaborate holiday feasts to a simple farmer’s lunch, the book explores the significance of various meals, discusses key ingredients, places food within the socioeconomic conditions of the time, and offers accessible recipes for readers to make their own tastes of the first century. Ideal for individual reading or group study, this book opens a window into the tumultuous world of the first century and invites readers to smell, touch, and taste the era’s food.

The New Testament is filled with stories of Jesus eating with people—from extravagant wedding banquets to simple meals of loaves and fishes. The Food and Feasts of Jesus offers a new perspective on life in biblical times by taking readers inside these meals. Food production and distribution impacted all aspects of ancient life, including the teachings of Jesus. From elaborate holiday feasts to a simple farmer’s lunch, the book explores the significance of various meals, discusses key ingredients, places food within the socioeconomic conditions of the time, and offers accessible recipes for readers to make their own tastes of the first century. Ideal for individual reading or group study, this book opens a window into the tumultuous world of the first century and invites readers to smell, touch, and taste the era’s food.

Occupy Religion introduces readers to the growing role of religion in the Occupy Movement and asks provocative questions about how people of faith can work for social justice. From the temperance movement to the Civil Rights movement, churches have played key roles in important social movements, and Occupy Religion shows this role is no less critical today.

Occupy Religion introduces readers to the growing role of religion in the Occupy Movement and asks provocative questions about how people of faith can work for social justice. From the temperance movement to the Civil Rights movement, churches have played key roles in important social movements, and Occupy Religion shows this role is no less critical today.

The Politics of Jesús is a powerful new biography of Jesus told from the margins. Miguel A. De La Torre argues that we all create Jesus in our own image, reflecting and reinforcing the values of communities—sometimes for better, and often for worse. In light of the increasing economic and social inequality around the world, De La Torre asserts that what the world needs is a Jesus of solidarity who also comes from the underside of global power. The Politics of Jesús is a search for a Jesus that resonates specifically with the Latino/a community, as well as other marginalized groups. The book unabashedly rejects the Eurocentric Jesus for the Hispanic Jesús, whose mission is to give life abundantly, who resonates with the Latino/a experience of disenfranchisement, and who works for real social justice and political change.While Jesus is an admirable figure for Christians, The Politics of Jesús highlights the way the Jesus of dominant culture is oppressive and describes a Jesús from the barrio who chose poverty and disrupted the status quo. Saying “no” to oppression and its symbols, even when one of those symbols is Jesus, is the first step to saying “yes” to the self, to liberation, and symbols of that liberation. For Jesus to connect with the Hispanic quest for liberation, Jesús must be unapologetically Hispanic and compel people to action. The Politics of Jesús provocatively moves the study of Jesús into the global present.

The Politics of Jesús is a powerful new biography of Jesus told from the margins. Miguel A. De La Torre argues that we all create Jesus in our own image, reflecting and reinforcing the values of communities—sometimes for better, and often for worse. In light of the increasing economic and social inequality around the world, De La Torre asserts that what the world needs is a Jesus of solidarity who also comes from the underside of global power. The Politics of Jesús is a search for a Jesus that resonates specifically with the Latino/a community, as well as other marginalized groups. The book unabashedly rejects the Eurocentric Jesus for the Hispanic Jesús, whose mission is to give life abundantly, who resonates with the Latino/a experience of disenfranchisement, and who works for real social justice and political change.While Jesus is an admirable figure for Christians, The Politics of Jesús highlights the way the Jesus of dominant culture is oppressive and describes a Jesús from the barrio who chose poverty and disrupted the status quo. Saying “no” to oppression and its symbols, even when one of those symbols is Jesus, is the first step to saying “yes” to the self, to liberation, and symbols of that liberation. For Jesus to connect with the Hispanic quest for liberation, Jesús must be unapologetically Hispanic and compel people to action. The Politics of Jesús provocatively moves the study of Jesús into the global present.

This book examines race, religion, and politics in the United States, illuminating their intersections and what they reveal about power and privilege. Drawing on both historic and recent examples, Stephanie Mitchem introduces readers to the ways race has been constructed in the United States, discusses how race and religion influence each other, and assesses how they shape political influence. Mitchem concludes with a chapter looking toward possibilities for increased rights and justice for all.

This book examines race, religion, and politics in the United States, illuminating their intersections and what they reveal about power and privilege. Drawing on both historic and recent examples, Stephanie Mitchem introduces readers to the ways race has been constructed in the United States, discusses how race and religion influence each other, and assesses how they shape political influence. Mitchem concludes with a chapter looking toward possibilities for increased rights and justice for all.

This book aims to bring Muslim theology into the present day. Rather than a purely academic pursuit, Modern Muslim Theology argues that theology is a creative process and discusses how the Islamic tradition can help contemporary practitioners negotiate their relationships with God, with one another, and with the rest of creation.

This book aims to bring Muslim theology into the present day. Rather than a purely academic pursuit, Modern Muslim Theology argues that theology is a creative process and discusses how the Islamic tradition can help contemporary practitioners negotiate their relationships with God, with one another, and with the rest of creation.

The Hong Kong protests that began in the second half of 2019 captured the world’s attention as demonstrations against an extradition bill grew into a larger civil liberties movement. While protests began as peaceful demonstrations, the disproportionate police force with which the government responded escalated the situation to an international crisis.Kwok Pui-lan and Francis Ching-wah Yip bring together an international cohort to discuss the relation between Christianity and Communism and the neoliberal economy, as well as civil disobedience, religion and social movements, and the roles of the churches in social conflict. This interdisciplinary volume showcases theological reflections by many scholars and activists in Hong Kong.

The Hong Kong protests that began in the second half of 2019 captured the world’s attention as demonstrations against an extradition bill grew into a larger civil liberties movement. While protests began as peaceful demonstrations, the disproportionate police force with which the government responded escalated the situation to an international crisis.Kwok Pui-lan and Francis Ching-wah Yip bring together an international cohort to discuss the relation between Christianity and Communism and the neoliberal economy, as well as civil disobedience, religion and social movements, and the roles of the churches in social conflict. This interdisciplinary volume showcases theological reflections by many scholars and activists in Hong Kong.

Hear the call to overcome today’s culture of hate and bring healing and hope into our life together. While right-wing conservatives dare to call themselves Christians as they tear down equality and justice, commit horrific acts of violence, and fan the flames of fascism in America, Carter Heyward issues a call to action for Christians to truly hear God’s message of peace and love.Heyward shows how American Christians have played a major role in building and securing structures of injustice in American life. Rising tides of white supremacy, threats to women’s reproductive freedoms and to basic human rights for gender and sexual minorities, the widening divide between rich and poor, and increasing natural disasters and the extinction of Earth’s species--all point to a world crying out for God’s wisdom.Followers of Jesus must first call out these ingrained and sinful attitudes for what they are, acknowledging what the culture of white Christian nationalism is doing to our country and our world, and commit ourselves ever more fully to generating justice-love, whoever and wherever we are.

This volume illuminates the voices of a diverse group of contemporary feminist scholars from a wide range of religious traditions to demonstrate the value and necessity of feminist contributions to the field of ethics.Contributors explore questions and debates that have long perplexed religious ethicists, such as the relationship between descriptive (“how do we act?”) and normative (“how should we act?”) inquiry, and how those can be productively addressed by drawing on resources from feminist work. In addition to contributing to these scholarly conversations, the book highlights a number of case studies from different religious communities on various moral issues to actively demonstrate the ways in which feminist approaches enhance religious ethics’ contribution to religious studies, support the decolonization of religious ethics, and provide resources for innovative responses to these contemporary questions and debates.The themes of solidarity and power and the connecting threads throughout the volume. Historically, solidarity has been an essential aspect of justice-oriented political projects, but feminists’ critical attention to power and difference—including attention to who is allowed to speak for/with particular communities—simultaneously raises questions regarding the possibility of genuine solidarity. While religious ethicists have traditionally considered normative work to be a central aspect of the field of religious ethics, other scholars of religion have questioned whether scholarly attempts to forge solidarity and promote justice are themselves inevitably exercises of colonial power and control. The book explores the tensions and debates that arise from these considerations, ultimately suggesting that a feminist ethical approach enables scholarship that accounts for all of these concerns.Exploring critical issues such as abortion, poverty, the carceral state, war, sexual violence and abuse, race, and social justice movements, this volume provides accessible entry points for advanced undergraduates to contemplate the unique contributions of feminist and womanist scholarship. In addition, scholars, graduate students, and researchers will benefit not only from the book’s diverse set of examples, but from the contributors’ commitment to intervening in methodological and theoretical debates that continue to challenge thinkers in both religious ethics and the larger field of religious studies.

This volume illuminates the voices of a diverse group of contemporary feminist scholars from a wide range of religious traditions to demonstrate the value and necessity of feminist contributions to the field of ethics.Contributors explore questions and debates that have long perplexed religious ethicists, such as the relationship between descriptive (“how do we act?”) and normative (“how should we act?”) inquiry, and how those can be productively addressed by drawing on resources from feminist work. In addition to contributing to these scholarly conversations, the book highlights a number of case studies from different religious communities on various moral issues to actively demonstrate the ways in which feminist approaches enhance religious ethics’ contribution to religious studies, support the decolonization of religious ethics, and provide resources for innovative responses to these contemporary questions and debates.The themes of solidarity and power and the connecting threads throughout the volume. Historically, solidarity has been an essential aspect of justice-oriented political projects, but feminists’ critical attention to power and difference—including attention to who is allowed to speak for/with particular communities—simultaneously raises questions regarding the possibility of genuine solidarity. While religious ethicists have traditionally considered normative work to be a central aspect of the field of religious ethics, other scholars of religion have questioned whether scholarly attempts to forge solidarity and promote justice are themselves inevitably exercises of colonial power and control. The book explores the tensions and debates that arise from these considerations, ultimately suggesting that a feminist ethical approach enables scholarship that accounts for all of these concerns.Exploring critical issues such as abortion, poverty, the carceral state, war, sexual violence and abuse, race, and social justice movements, this volume provides accessible entry points for advanced undergraduates to contemplate the unique contributions of feminist and womanist scholarship. In addition, scholars, graduate students, and researchers will benefit not only from the book’s diverse set of examples, but from the contributors’ commitment to intervening in methodological and theoretical debates that continue to challenge thinkers in both religious ethics and the larger field of religious studies.

Hear the call to overcome today’s culture of hate and bring healing and hope into our life together. While right-wing conservatives dare to call themselves Christians as they tear down equality and justice, commit horrific acts of violence, and fan the flames of fascism in America, Carter Heyward issues a call to action for Christians to truly hear God’s message of peace and love.Heyward shows how American Christians have played a major role in building and securing structures of injustice in American life. Rising tides of white supremacy, threats to women’s reproductive freedoms and to basic human rights for gender and sexual minorities, the widening divide between rich and poor, and increasing natural disasters and the extinction of Earth’s species--all point to a world crying out for God’s wisdom.Followers of Jesus must first call out these ingrained and sinful attitudes for what they are, acknowledging what the culture of white Christian nationalism is doing to our country and our world, and commit ourselves ever more fully to generating justice-love, whoever and wherever we are.

There is growing consensus that life on the planet is in peril if climate change continues at its current pace. At stake is not only the future of many species but of humanity itself. As an increasing number of ecological economists have emphasized, these problems will only be adequately addressed by re-examining economic systems from an ecological perspective, fundamentally calling into question assumptions of unlimited growth and the maximization of shareholder profit foundational to neoliberal capitalism. Religion and ecology scholars have also increasingly emphasized the ways climate change challenges assumed divides between nature and culture, religion and labor, economy and ecology, and calls for critical and constructive engagement with the religion, economy, and ecology nexus. Often, though, religious engagements with economy and ecology have placed emphasis on individual morality, action, and agency at the level of consumption patterns or have suggested mere modifications within existing economic paradigms. Contributors to this volume call into question the adequacy of this approach in light of the urgency of climate change which is always ever entwined with ongoing patterns of exploitation, oppression, and colonialism in current economic systems. Rather than tweaking a system of exploitation, for instance by emphasizing individual consumption or care for human and non-human victims, these authors articulate important opportunities for religious engagement, activism, resistance, and solidarity around issues of production and labor. Recalling that Marx linked agencies and labor of people as well as the other-than-human world, these authors aim to articulate a sense in which liberation of people and the planet are intertwined and can be accomplished only through collaboration for their common good. The basic intuition driving this volume is that while Christianity has by and large become the handmaiden of exploitative capitalism and empire, it might also reclaim latent theologies and religious practices that call into question the fundamental valuation of labor without recognition or rest, of extractive exploitation, and a “winner take all” praxis. In the process, Christianity might reclaim and reinvest in tenuous historical materializations of transformed ecological and economic relationships while economics might be re-informed by a valuation of the shared oikos as well as a just accounting of and renumeration for labor. Together they might serve the aim of the flourishing of all people and the planet.

There is growing consensus that life on the planet is in peril if climate change continues at its current pace. At stake is not only the future of many species but of humanity itself. As an increasing number of ecological economists have emphasized, these problems will only be adequately addressed by re-examining economic systems from an ecological perspective, fundamentally calling into question assumptions of unlimited growth and the maximization of shareholder profit foundational to neoliberal capitalism. Religion and ecology scholars have also increasingly emphasized the ways climate change challenges assumed divides between nature and culture, religion and labor, economy and ecology, and calls for critical and constructive engagement with the religion, economy, and ecology nexus. Often, though, religious engagements with economy and ecology have placed emphasis on individual morality, action, and agency at the level of consumption patterns or have suggested mere modifications within existing economic paradigms. Contributors to this volume call into question the adequacy of this approach in light of the urgency of climate change which is always ever entwined with ongoing patterns of exploitation, oppression, and colonialism in current economic systems. Rather than tweaking a system of exploitation, for instance by emphasizing individual consumption or care for human and non-human victims, these authors articulate important opportunities for religious engagement, activism, resistance, and solidarity around issues of production and labor. Recalling that Marx linked agencies and labor of people as well as the other-than-human world, these authors aim to articulate a sense in which liberation of people and the planet are intertwined and can be accomplished only through collaboration for their common good. The basic intuition driving this volume is that while Christianity has by and large become the handmaiden of exploitative capitalism and empire, it might also reclaim latent theologies and religious practices that call into question the fundamental valuation of labor without recognition or rest, of extractive exploitation, and a “winner take all” praxis. In the process, Christianity might reclaim and reinvest in tenuous historical materializations of transformed ecological and economic relationships while economics might be re-informed by a valuation of the shared oikos as well as a just accounting of and renumeration for labor. Together they might serve the aim of the flourishing of all people and the planet.

Interrogating Religion and Peacebuilding challenges the dominant narratives that frame peace as a civilizational ideal. At a time when millions demand an end to war, occupation, and systemic oppression, this volume gathers diverse voices in a transnational and decolonial conversation. The contributors interrogate how “peace” is too often deployed as a mirage—reproducing systems of exclusion and violence under the guise of stability, order, and reform.Exposing the coloniality embedded within hegemonic peace discourses, contributors reveal how imperial power configurations transform freedom into occupation, democracy into exclusion, and security into violence. Through critically self-reflective engagement with both religious and secular worldviews, contributors propose that peace is not an abstract ideal, but a deeply political construct shaped by empire, enforced through intervention, and justified by a faith in modernity’s civilizing mission. Rejecting both reformist inclusion and idealized neutrality, these essays embody a political commitment to the tormented, the resisting, and the marginalized.From “post-conflict” pacification to imperial “peace deals,” contributors unmask peacebuilding as often war by other means—while advancing liberative spiritualities that reimagine peace as justice from below. This book is not merely critique—it is a call to transformation.

Interrogating Religion and Peacebuilding challenges the dominant narratives that frame peace as a civilizational ideal. At a time when millions demand an end to war, occupation, and systemic oppression, this volume gathers diverse voices in a transnational and decolonial conversation. The contributors interrogate how “peace” is too often deployed as a mirage—reproducing systems of exclusion and violence under the guise of stability, order, and reform.Exposing the coloniality embedded within hegemonic peace discourses, contributors reveal how imperial power configurations transform freedom into occupation, democracy into exclusion, and security into violence. Through critically self-reflective engagement with both religious and secular worldviews, contributors propose that peace is not an abstract ideal, but a deeply political construct shaped by empire, enforced through intervention, and justified by a faith in modernity’s civilizing mission. Rejecting both reformist inclusion and idealized neutrality, these essays embody a political commitment to the tormented, the resisting, and the marginalized.From “post-conflict” pacification to imperial “peace deals,” contributors unmask peacebuilding as often war by other means—while advancing liberative spiritualities that reimagine peace as justice from below. This book is not merely critique—it is a call to transformation.

Carvalhaes invites readers into a spiritual practice of resistance and renewal for our climate-challenged world. At its heart lies a simple yet profound ritual of three gestures—rising, bowing, and prostrating—performed within one’s own bioregion as a way to reconnect body, spirit, and land. These embodied actions ground us in our places, teaching us to attend to the skies and trees above, to honor human and nonhuman neighbors around us, and to remember the histories beneath our feet.Carvalhaes situates this practice within a sweeping analysis of our global crises. He shows how ecological destruction, political violence, economic injustice, and social fragmentation all stem from a deeper spiritual crisis: our captivity to the spirit of capitalism. By tracing the colonial roots of our broken relationship with the earth and naming the ongoing struggles between destructive global forces and local lifegiving spirits, he exposes the urgent need for new forms of ritual and spirituality.Drawing on theology, philosophy, indigenous wisdom, and ecology, the book develops key concepts such as bioregion, relationality, and “molecular revolutions”—small acts that can spark wide transformation. Alongside theory, Carvalhaes provides practical tools: reflective exercises, a bioregional quiz, and ritual guidance that make the work accessible for both classrooms and communities.Weaving scholarship and practice, critique and hope, Carvalhaes redefines what it means to live faithfully in our time. With poetic vision and prophetic urgency, he calls us to decolonize ourselves, reorient our desires, and embody gestures that generate new forms of communal life.This book offers students, professors, clergy, and general readers alike a path toward reconnection with the earth—and with one another—through ritualized practices of care, resistance, and hope.

Carvalhaes invites readers into a spiritual practice of resistance and renewal for our climate-challenged world. At its heart lies a simple yet profound ritual of three gestures—rising, bowing, and prostrating—performed within one’s own bioregion as a way to reconnect body, spirit, and land. These embodied actions ground us in our places, teaching us to attend to the skies and trees above, to honor human and nonhuman neighbors around us, and to remember the histories beneath our feet.Carvalhaes situates this practice within a sweeping analysis of our global crises. He shows how ecological destruction, political violence, economic injustice, and social fragmentation all stem from a deeper spiritual crisis: our captivity to the spirit of capitalism. By tracing the colonial roots of our broken relationship with the earth and naming the ongoing struggles between destructive global forces and local lifegiving spirits, he exposes the urgent need for new forms of ritual and spirituality.Drawing on theology, philosophy, indigenous wisdom, and ecology, the book develops key concepts such as bioregion, relationality, and “molecular revolutions”—small acts that can spark wide transformation. Alongside theory, Carvalhaes provides practical tools: reflective exercises, a bioregional quiz, and ritual guidance that make the work accessible for both classrooms and communities.Weaving scholarship and practice, critique and hope, Carvalhaes redefines what it means to live faithfully in our time. With poetic vision and prophetic urgency, he calls us to decolonize ourselves, reorient our desires, and embody gestures that generate new forms of communal life.This book offers students, professors, clergy, and general readers alike a path toward reconnection with the earth—and with one another—through ritualized practices of care, resistance, and hope.

Globalization has been a central theme in political, economic, cultural, and religious debates since the turn of the century. While some see it as a solution, others consider it the root of our problems. The intensification of cultural and military warfare, and the “West v. the Rest” mentality, fuels a deep-seated ethnocentrism. Religion, meanwhile, faces scrutiny from various fundamentalisms and grand narratives. Many modern Muslim thinkers are skeptical of globalization, perceiving it as a homogenizing force that spreads Western culture and concentrates power among a few nations. They argue that Islam promotes human oneness and provides an intellectual and spiritual framework for a more civilized and universal approach to globalization, opposing the Western-centric hegemonic tendencies.The goal of this book is to demonstrate that Islam favors globalization in its original, voluntary form, as opposed to the violent imposition of the West on the East. It will examine Muslim responses to globalization and their attempts to find global answers to local problems in their own local, regional, national, and global contexts. Several academic works have explored various aspects of globalization, focusing on tensions and conflicts, such as power politics, religious authority, and legislative issues. However, there is a notable absence of attention given to the Islamic perspective on globalization, including both appreciation and critique. This book addresses this gap by offering not only a Muslim critique of globalization but also a broader framework for understanding Islam’s unique perspective on globalization. Does globalization support the inclusivity that Islam advocates? How does Islam fit into the globalization era? What impact and influence may Muslims have on the future of globalization? What unique prospects does globalization provide Muslims and the Islamic faith? Is Islamic revivalism a reaction to globalization? Alternatives to globalization could exist. What kind of structure will the Islamic globalization paradigm have?In addition to addressing these questions, the book attempts to provide a theoretical framework for Islamic globalization, which incorporates the shuratic practice and the vision of an international community extending beyond the Arabs and non-Arabs. This underscores the importance of historical contexts for contemporary actions and beliefs. In the process the book attempts to extend the debate on Islam and globalization by mapping out the effects of globalization on various aspects of Muslim culture.