Integrated Circuits and Systems – serie

Scaling transistors into the nanometer regime has resulted in a dramatic increase in MOS leakage (i.e., off-state) current. Threshold voltages of transistors have scaled to maintain performance at reduced power supply voltages. Leakage current has become a major portion of the total power consumption, and in many scaled technologies leakage contributes 30-50% of the overall power consumption under nominal operating conditions. Leakage is important in a variety of different contexts. For example, in desktop applications, active leakage power (i.e., leakage power when the processor is computing) is becoming significant compared to switching power. In battery operated systems, standby leakage (i.e., leakage when the processor clock is turned off) dominates as energy is drawn over long idle periods. Increased transistor leakages not only impact the overall power consumed by a CMOS system, but also reduce the margins available for design due to the strong relationship between process variation and leakage power. It is essential for circuit and system designers to understand the components of leakage, sensitivity of leakage to different design parameters, and leakage mitigation techniques in nanometer technologies. This book provides an in-depth treatment of these issues for researchers and product designers.

Statistical Analysis and Optimization For VLSI: Timing and Power is a state-of-the-art book on the newly emerging field of statistical computer-aided design (CAD) tools. The very latest research in statistical timing and power analysis techniques is included, along with efforts to incorporate parametric yield as the key objective function during the design process. Included is the necessary mathematical background on techniques which find widespread use in current analysis and optimization. The emphasis is on algorithms, modeling approaches for process variability, and statistical techniques that are the cornerstone of the probabilistic CAD movement. The authors also describe recent optimization approaches to timing yield and contrast them to deterministic optimization. The work will enable new researchers in this area to come up to speed quickly, as well as provide a handy reference for those already working in CAD tool development.

In Thermal and Power Management of Integrated Circuits, power and thermal management issues in integrated circuits during normal operating conditions and stress operating conditions are addressed. Thermal management in VLSI circuits is becoming an integral part of the design, test, and manufacturing. Proper thermal management is the key to achieve high performance, quality and reliability. Performance and reliability of integrated circuits are strong functions of the junction temperature. A small increase in junction temperature may result in significant reduction in the device lifetime.This book reviews the significance of the junction temperature as a reliability measure under nominal and burn-in conditions. The latest research in the area of electro-thermal modeling of integrated circuits will also be presented. Recent models and associated CAD tools are covered and various techniques at the circuit and system levels are reviewed. Subsequently, the authors provide an insight into the concept of thermal runaway and how it may best be avoided. A section on low temperature operation of integrated circuits concludes the book.

Microprocessors of today contain close to a billion transistors, while achieving the performance of super-computers just a decade ago. Designing such processors takes hundreds of people organized into large teams. High Performance Energy Efficient Microprocessor Design is written by the world’s most prominent microprocessor design leaders from the industry and academia. It provides a complete coverage of all the aspects of a complex microprocessor design process from technology, power management, clocking, high-performance architecture, design methodologies, memory and I/O design, computer aided design, testing and design for testability. The chapters are written to provide the latest state of the art knowledge of particular aspects of microprocessor design, while including sufficient tutorial content in order to bring non-experts up to speed. High Performance Energy Efficient Microprocessor Design is intended to be a useful companion book for every design engineer working in the related areas and a source of technical information as well as a comprehensive reference in the field. It should also serve as the source book for technical and business managers involved in microprocessor based design and manufacture. The chapters are organized in a way which makes it possible to use this book as a textbook for graduate courses in advanced digital and system design. The book is intended to highlight practical problems encountered in designing state of the art processors, while yet covering fundamental principles that are independent of technology.

With dramatic increases in on-chip packing densities, routing congestion has become a major problem in integrated circuit design, impacting convergence, performance, and yield, and complicating the synthesis of critical interc- nects. The problem is especially acute as interconnects are becoming the performance bottleneck in modern integrated circuits. Even with more than 30% of white space, some of the design blocks in modern microprocessor and ASIC designs cannot be routed successfully. Moreover, this problem is likely to worsen considerably in the coming years due to design size and technology scaling. There is an inherent tradeo? between choosing a minimum delay path for interconnect nets, and the need to detour the routes to avoid “tra?c jams”; congestion management involves intelligent allocation of the available int- connect resources, up-front planning of the wire routes for even distributions, and transformations that make the physical synthesis ?ow congestion-aware. The book explores this tradeo? that lies at the heart of all congestion m- agement, in seeking to address the key question: how does one optimize the traditional design goals such as the delay or the area of a circuit, while still ensuring that the circuit remains routable? It begins by motivating the c- gestion problem, explaining why this problem is important and how it will trend. It then progresses with comprehensive discussions of the techniques available for estimating and optimizing congestion at various stages in the design ?ow.

Design for Manufacturability and Statistical Design: A Constructive Approach provides a thorough treatment of the causes of variability, methods for statistical data characterization, and techniques for modeling, analysis, and optimization of integrated circuits to improve yield. The objective of the constructive approach developed in this book is to formulate a consistent set of methods and principles necessary for rigorous statistical design and design for manufacturability from device physics to large-scale circuit optimization. The segments of the book are devoted, respectively, to understanding the causes of variability; design of test structures for variability characterization; statistically rigorous data analysis;techniques of design for manufacturability in lithography and in chemical mechanical polishing;statistical simulation, analysis, and optimization techniques for improving parametric yield.Design for Manufacturability and Statistical Design: A Constructive Approach presents an overview of the methods that need to be mastered for state-of-the-art design for manufacturability and statistical design methodologies.  It is an important reference for practitioners and students in the field of computer-aided design of integrated circuits.

transconductance e?ciency of all critical devices in order to reduce the n- essary bias current. However, reducing the current density also results in a severely decreased device f . An optimization of the current density is re- T quired to provide the correct balance between transconductance e?ciency and bandwidth. Plots such as Figure 2. 1 are useful tools for designers when choosing appropriate transistor bias points. Technology scaling allows greatly increased f realization for a given IC. Thus, weak inversion biasing for RF T design will become increasingly useful in future technology nodes. Throughout this work, the IC of critical transistors will be discussed. Most of the RF devices are biased in moderate to weak inversion to achieve enhanced transconductance e?ciency and reduced bias current. 2. 2 MEMS Background The relatively new ?eld of Radio Frequency Microelectro Mechanical Systems (RF MEMS) provides unique opportunities for RF transceiver designers. This section provides background on RF MEMS and provides insight into the - portunities presented by these new technologies. The ?eld of RF MEMS - cludes the design and utilization of RF ?lters, resonators, switches, and other passive mechanical structures constructed using bulk processed integrated c- cuit fabrication techniques. To date, these devices have been commercially used as discrete board-mounted components, primarily used to enhance the miniaturization of mobile phones. However, RF MEMS components have the potential to be batch fabricated using existing integrated circuit fabrication techniques.

Ultra-Low Voltage Nano-Scale Memories provides an in-depth discussion of the state-of-the-art nanometer and sub-1-V memory LSIs that are playing decisive roles in power conscious systems. Emerging problems between the device, circuit, and system levels are systematically covered in terms of reliable high-speed operations of memory cells and peripheral logic circuits. The effectiveness of solutions at device and circuit levels is also described at length through clarifying noise components in an array, and even essential differences in ultra-low voltage operations between DRAMs and SRAMs. Moreover, various kinds of on-chip voltage converters necessary to solve problems with internal power-supply managements are extensively discussed. This authoritative monograph addresses these design challenges for memory and circuit engineers as well as for researchers and students who are interested in ultra-low voltage nano-scale memory LSIs.

Although energy dissipation has improved with each new technology node, because SoCs are integrating tens of million devices on-chip, the energy ex­ pended per operation has become a critical consideration in digital and ana­ log integrated circuits. The focus of this book is sub-threshold circuit design, which involves scaling voltages below the device thresholds. In this region, the energy per operation cair be reduced by an order of magnitude compared to conventional operation but at the cost of circuit performance. In many emerging applications such as self-powered RFID, wireless sensors networks, and portable devices (PDAs, medical monitoring, etc. ), the overall battery life­ time is the primary design metric. Sub-threshold design can also be applied to burst mode applications (e. g. , a cell-phone processor) where the process spends a significant amount of time in the standby mode. The supply voltage can be reduced to the deep sub-threshold region, dramatically saving power in logic and memory. Extremely low-power design was first explored in the 1970s for the design of applications such as wristwatch and calculator circuits. Dr. Eric Vittoz pioneered the design and modeling of weak-inversion circuits. In this book, Eric provides his perspective on the evolution of sub-threshold circuit design. Dr. Eric Vittoz and Dr. Christian Enz introduce key models necessary for the design and optimization of weak inversion circuits. Design using weak inversion has been widely adopted in analog circuits, and Eric introduces the key design considerations.

Abstraction Refinement for Large Scale Model Checking summarizes recent research on abstraction techniques for model checking large digital system. Considering both the size of today's digital systems and the capacity of state-of-the-art verification algorithms, abstraction is the only viable solution for the successful application of model checking techniques to industrial-scale designs. This book describes recent research developments in automatic abstraction refinement techniques. The suite of algorithms presented in this book has demonstrated significant improvement over prior art; some of them have already been adopted by the EDA companies in their commercial/in-house verification tools.

Assertion-based IP is much more than a comprehensive set of related assertions. It is a full-fledged reusable and configurable transaction-level verification component, which is used to detect both interesting and incorrect behaviors. Upon detecting interesting or incorrect behavior, the assertion-based IP alerts other verification components within a simulation environment, which are responsible for taking appropriate action. The focus of this book is to bring the assertion discussion up to a higher level and introduce a process for creating effective, reusable, assertion-based IP, which easily integrates with the user’s existing verification environment, in other words the testbench infrastructure.The guiding principles promoted in this book when creating an assertion-based IP monitor are: modularity—assertion-based IP should have a clear separation between detection and actionclarity—assertion-based IP should be written initially focusing on capturing intent (versus optimizations) A unique feature of this book is the fully worked out, detailed examples. The concepts presented in the book are drawn from the authors’ experience developing assertion-based IP, as well as general assertion-based techniques. Creating Assertion-Based IP is an important resource for design and verification engineers.From the Foreword:Creating Assertion-Based IP "…reduces to process the creation of one of the most valuable kinds of VIP: assertion-based VIP…This book will serve as a valuable reference for years to come."Andrew Piziali, Sr. Design Verification EngineerCo-Author, ESL Design and Verification: A Prescription for Electronic System Level MethodologyAuthor, Functional Verification Coverage Measurement and Analysis

This book provides a complete overview of the field of carbon nanotube electronics. It covers materials and physical properties, synthesis and fabrication processes, devices and circuits, modeling, and finally novel applications of nanotube-based electronics. The book introduces fundamental device physics and circuit concepts of 1-D electronics while at the same time provides specific examples of the state-of-the-art nanotube devices and novel technological applications, including chemical and biological sensors, opto-electronics, and flexible macro-electronics. This book provides a complete guide to the field of nanotube electronics.

CMOS Biotechnology reviews the recent research and developments joining CMOS technology with biology. Written by leading researchers these chapters delve into four areas including:Microfluidics for electrical engineers CMOS Actuators CMOS Electrical SensorsCMOS Optical SensorsBioanalytical instruments have been miniaturized on ICs to study various biophenomena or to actuate biosystems. These bio-lab-on-IC systems utilize the IC to facilitate faster, repeatable, and standardized biological experiments at low cost with a small volume of biological sample. CMOS Biotechnology will interest electrical engineers, bioengineers, biophysicists as well as researchers in MEMS, bioMEMS, microelectronics, microfluidics, and circuits and systems.

Modern Circuit Placement: Best Practices and Results describes advanced techniques in VLSI circuit placement which is one of the most important steps of the VLSI physical design flow. Physical design addresses the back-end layout stage of the chip design process. As technology scales down, the significance of interconnect optimization becomes much more important and physical design, particularly the placement process, is essential to interconnect optimization.This book has four unique characteristics. First, it focuses on the most recent highly scalable placement techniques used for multi-million gate circuit designs, with consideration of many practical aspects of modern circuit placement, such as density and routability control, mixed-size placement support, and area I/O support. Second the book addresses dominant techniques being used in the field. This book includes all the academic placement tools that competed at the International Symposium on Physical Design (ISPD) placement contest in 2005 and 2006. Although these tools are developed by academia, many core techniques in these tools are being used extensively in industry and represent today’s advanced placement techniques. Third, the book provides quantitative comparison among the various techniques on common benchmark circuits derived from real-life industrial designs. The book includes significant amounts of analysis on each technique, such as trade-offs between quality-of-results (QoR) and runtime. Finally, analysis of the optimality of the placement techniques is included. This is done by utilizing placement benchmarks with known optimal solutions, yet with characteristics similar to real industrial designs. Modern Circuit Placement: Best Practices and Results is a valuable tool and a must-read for graduate students, researchers and CAD tool developers in the VLSI physical synthesis and physical design fields.

Recent advances in wireless communication technologies have had a transfor- tive impact on society and have directly contributed to several economic and social aspects of daily life. Increasingly, the untethered exchange of information between devices is becoming a prime requirement for further progress, which is placing an ever greater demand on wireless bandwidth. The ultra wideband (UWB) system marks a major milestone in this progress. Since 2002, when the FCC allowed the unlicensed use of low-power, UWB radio signals in the 3. 1–10. 6GHz frequency band, there has been signi?cant synergistic advance in this technology at the c- cuits, architectural and communication systems levels. This technology allows for devices to communicate wirelessly, while coexisting with other users by ensuring that its power density is suf?ciently low so that it is perceived as noise to other users. UWB is expected to address existing needs for high data rate short-range c- munication applications between devices, such as computers and peripherals or consumer electronic devices. In the long term, it makes available spectrum to - periment with new signaling formats such as those based on very short pulses of radio-frequency (RF) energy. As such it represents an opportunity to design fun- mentally different wireless systems which rely on the bandwidth of the signals to enhance the data rate or which use the available bandwidth for diverse applications such as ranging and biomedical instrumentation.

Functional verification has become an important aspect of the chip design process. Significant resources, both in industry and academia, are devoted to the design complexity and verification endeavors.SAT-Based Scalable Formal Verification Solutions discusses in detail several of the latest and interesting scalable SAT-based techniques including: Hybrid SAT Solver, Customized Bounded/Unbounded Model Checking, Distributed Model Checking, Proofs and Proof-based Abstraction Methods, Verification of Embedded Memory System & Multi-clock Systems, and Synthesis for Verification Paradigm. These techniques have been designed and implemented in a verification platform Verisol (formally called DiVer) and have been used successfully in industry. This book provides algorithmic details and engineering insights into devising scalable approaches for an effective realization. It also includes the authors’ practical experiences and recommendations in verifying the large industry designs using VeriSol.The book is primarily written for researchers, scientists, and verification engineers who would like to gain an in-depth understanding of scalable SAT-based verification techniques. The book will also be of interest for CAD tool developers who would like to incorporate various SAT-based advanced techniques in their products.

Low Power Design Essentials contains all the topics of importance to the low power designer. Chapters on special topics are also included: power management and modal design, ultra low power, and low power design methodology and flows.

FinFETs and Other Multi-Gate Transistors provides a comprehensive description of the physics, technology and circuit applications of multigate field-effect transistors (FETs). It explains the physics and properties of these devices, how they are fabricated and how circuit designers can use them to improve the performances of integrated circuits. The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) recognizes the importance of these devices and places them in the "Advanced non-classical CMOS devices" category. Of all the existing multigate devices, the FinFET is the most widely known.FinFETs and Other Multi-Gate Transistors is dedicated to the different facets of multigate FET technology and is written by leading experts in the field.

“Tools alone aren't enough to reduce dynamic and leakage power in complex chip designs - a well-planned methodology is needed. Following in the footsteps of the successful Reuse Methodology Manual (RMM), authors from ARM and Synopsys have written this Low Power Methodology Manual (LPMM) to describe [such] [a] low-power methodology with a practical, step-by-step approach.”Richard Goering, Software Editor, EE Times“Excellent compendium of low-power techniques and guidelines with balanced content spanning theory and practical implementation. The LPMM is a very welcome addition to the field of low power SoC implementation that has for many years operated in a largely ad-hoc fashion.” Sujeeth Joseph, Chief Architect - Semiconductor and Systems Solutions Unit, Wipro Technologies“The LPMM enables broader adoption of aggressive power management techniques based on extensive experience and silicon example with real data that every SOC designer can use to meet the difficulties faced in managing the power issues in deep submicron designs.”Anil Mankar, Sr VP Worldwide Core Engineering and Chief Development Officer, Conexant Systems Inc.“Managing power, at 90nm and below, introduces significant challenges to design flow. The LPMM is a timely and immediately useful book that shows how combination of tools, IP and methodology can be used together to address power management.”Nick Salter, Head of Chip Integration, CSR plc.

On any advanced integrated circuit or "system-on-chip" there is a need for security. In many applications the actual implementation has become the weakest link in security rather than the algorithms or protocols. The purpose of the book is to give the integrated circuits and systems designer an insight into the basics of security and cryptography from the implementation point of view. As a designer of integrated circuits and systems it is important to know both the state-of-the-art attacks as well as the countermeasures. Optimizing for security is different from optimizations for speed, area, or power consumption. It is therefore difficult to attain the delicate balance between the extra cost of security measures and the added benefits.

The integrated circuit has evolved tremendously in recent years as Moore’s Law has enabled exponentially more devices and functionality to be packed onto a single piece of silicon. In some ways however, these highly integrated circuits, of which microprocessors are the flagship example, have become victims of their own success. Despite dramatic reductions in the switching energy of the transistors, these reductions have kept pace neither with the increased integration levels nor with the higher switching frequencies. In addition, the atomic dimensions being utilized by these highly integrated processors have given rise to much higher levels of random and systematic variation which undercut the gains from process scaling that would otherwise be realized. So these factors—the increasing impact of variation and the struggle to control power consumption—have given rise to a tremendous amount of innovation in the area of adaptive techniques for dynamic processor optimization. The fundamental premise behind adaptive processor design is the recognition that variations in manufacturing and environment cause a statically configured operating point to be far too inefficient. Inefficient designs waste power and performance and will quickly be surpassed by more adaptive designs, just as it happens in the biological realm. Organisms must adapt to survive, and a similar trend is seen with processors – those that are enabled to adapt to their environment, will be far more competitive.

Three-dimensional (3D) integration is clearly the simplest answer to most of the semiconductor industry’s vexing problems: heterogeneous integration and red- tions of power, form factor, delay, and even cost. Conceptually the power, latency, and form factor of a system with a ?xed number of transistors all scale roughly linearly with the diameter of the smallest sphere enclosing frequently interacting devices. This clearly provides the fundamental motivation behind 3D technologies which vertically stack several strata of device and interconnect layers with high vertical interconnectivity. In addition, the ability to vertically stack strata with - vergent and even incompatible process ?ows provides for low cost and low parasitic integration of diverse technologies such as sensors, energy scavengers, nonvolatile memory, dense memory, fast memory, processors, and RF layers. These capabilities coupled with today’s trends of increasing levels of integrated functionality, lower power, smaller form factor, increasingly divergent process ?ows, and functional diversi?cation would seem to make 3D technologies a natural choice for most of the semiconductor industry. Since the concept of vertical integration of different strata has been around for over 20 years, why aren’t vertically stacked strata endemic to the semiconductor industry? The simple answer to this question is that in the past, the 3D advantages while interesting were not necessary due to the tremendous opportunities offered by geometric scaling. In addition, even when the global interconnect problem of high-performance single-core processors seemed insurmountable without inno- tions such as 3D, alternative architectural solutions such as multicores could eff- tivelydelaybutnoteliminatetheneedfor3D.

At the same time, the explosive growth of wireless data such as WiFi spurred s- ni?cant research into and development of new architectures for radio transceivers that could deliver very high data rates over short ranges, particularly for video and personal area networks.

Organic Field Effect Transistors presents the state of the art in organic field effect transistors (OFETs), with a particular focus on the materials and techniques useful for making integrated circuits.

Design for Manufacturability and Yield for Nano-Scale CMOS walks the reader through all the aspects of manufacturability and yield in a nano-CMOS process and how to address each aspect at the proper design step starting with the design and layout of standard cells and how to yield-grade libraries for critical area and lithography artifacts through place and route, CMP model based simulation and dummy-fill insertion, mask planning, simulation and manufacturing, and through statistical design and statistical timing closure of the design. It alerts the designer to the pitfalls to watch for and to the good practices that can enhance a design’s manufacturability and yield. This book is a must read book the serious practicing IC designer and an excellent primer for any graduate student intent on having a career in IC design or in EDA tool development.

Green Software De?ned Radios, the title of this book may have originated from a lackofinspiration,andthecombinationofhardwork,jetlag,anddrinkinggreentea. The message we want to convey however, is that SDRs are a promising technology for the future, providing they are designed for ef?cient usage of scarce resources: energy and spectrum. In the last years, the R&D teams focusing on wireless c- munication (around the world and at IMEC speci?cally), have realized great bre- throughs. It is our honor, building on this knowledge, to bring a comprehensive overview of the essential technologies. We are grateful that Springer is willing to publish in their collection on radio technologies, a book on green SDRs, a weird species still today, yet maybe the baseline for the day after tomorrow. Dear reader, we wish that you ?nd in the following pages, including the references, some int- esting insights, and that this book may live more or less up to your expectations (and hopefully more than less). Thisbook’sclosingstatesthatthequestforGreenSDRshasnotended,thisisjust the beginning. Concerning this book however, we are happy that today the opposite is true. We want to acknowledge our colleagues at IMEC for their great scienti?c contribution, and even more for the enjoyable cooperation.

The idea for this book originated from a Special Session on Circuits and Systems for Future Generations of Wireless Communications that was presented at the 2005 InternationalSymposiumon Circuits and Systems, which was then followed by two Special Issues bearing the same title that appeared in the March and April 2008 issues of the IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems – Part II: Express Briefs. Out of a large number of great contributions, we have selected those tting best the book format based on their quality. We would like to thank all the authors, the reviewers of the Transactions on Circuits and Systems – Part II, and the reviewers of the nal book material for their efforts in creating this manuscript. We also thank the Springer Editorial Staff for their support in putting together all the good work. We hope that this book will provide you, the reader, with new insights into Circuits and Systems for Future Generations of Wireless Communications.

. . . ????????????????????????????????? ????????????? ????????????,????? ???? ??????????? ???????????????????? ???. THUCYDIDIS HISTORIAE IV:108 C. Hude ed. , Teubner, Lipsiae MCMXIII ???????????,????? ??,? ????????????????? ???????????????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????????? ??? ?’ ?????????? ??’ ?????????? ? ??????? ??? ????????????? ???????. ???????????????????:108 ???????????? ?????????????????????? ?. ?????????????. ????????????,????? It being the fashion of men, what they wish to be true to admit even upon an ungrounded hope, and what they wish not, with a magistral kind of arguing to reject. Thucydides (the Peloponnesian War Part I), IV:108 Thomas Hobbes Trans. , Sir W. Molesworth ed. In The English Works of Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury, Vol. VIII I have been introduced to clock design very early in my professional career when I was tapped right out of school to design and implement the clock generation and distribution of the Alpha 21364 microprocessor. Traditionally, Alpha processors - hibited highly innovative clocking systems, always worthy of ISSCC/JSSC publi- tions and for a while Alpha processors were leading the industry in terms of clock performance. I had huge shoes to ?ll. Obviously, I was overwhelmed, confused and highly con?dent that I would drag the entire project down.

Multicore Processors and Systems provides a comprehensive overview of emerging multicore processors and systems. It covers technology trends affecting multicores, multicore architecture innovations, multicore software innovations, and case studies of state-of-the-art commercial multicore systems. A cross-cutting theme of the book is the challenges associated with scaling up multicore systems to hundreds of cores.The book provides an overview of significant developments in the architectures for multicore processors and systems. It includes chapters on fundamental requirements for multicore systems, including processing, memory systems, and interconnect. It also includes several case studies on commercial multicore systems that have recently been developed and deployed across multiple application domains. The architecture chapters focus on innovative multicore execution models as well as infrastructure for multicores, including memory systems and on-chip interconnections. The case studies examine multicore implementations across different application domains, including general purpose, server, media/broadband, network processing, and signal processing.Multicore Processors and Systems is the first book that focuses solely on multicore processors and systems, and in particular on the unique technology implications, architectures, and implementations. The book has contributing authors that are from both the academic and industrial communities.